With an emphasis on vocational didactics, this paper analyses the South African Construction and Technology Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. This research aims to assess the curriculum’s vocational didactics components for compatibility with industry expectations to assess how well they prepare students for employment in the construction industry. The main approach used was document analysis, which involved an analysis of the curriculum policy statement, pertinent educational frameworks, and industrial standards. The examination showed that the curriculum is well organised, with a smooth flow from simple to complex subject content. The topic categories include materials, equipment, graphics and communications, safety, and sustainable practices, among other important facets of building technology. The study observed some areas that needed improvement, though. Firstly, there is little emphasis on practical training, even though the programme combines theory and practical teaching. More comprehensive practical components would better prepare students for issues they would face in the real world. Second, content on digital tools that is essential for contemporary construction technology is limited. Findings highlight the necessity of ongoing curriculum review and enhancement.
Subsequent studies should investigate the enduring consequences of students who successfully finish the construction technology curriculum, evaluating their professional paths and contributions to the sector. Furthermore, comparative studies of South African vocational curricular with those in other nations may yield insightful information for best practices in vocational didactics. This study has important implications on the body of knowledge for vocational didactics for educators and researchers working in construction technology and vocational education more broadly.

Keywords: Curriculum, industry collaboration, practical skills, stakeholders

1        Background and Introduction

1.1       Construction Technology

The construction sector contributes to economic growth, infrastructure development and poverty alleviation (Labour Research Service 2023). Spöttl and Windelband (2021) and Schröder and Dehnbostel (2020) highlight the importance of the dual vocational training system in differentiated learning venues. The learning venues are the company workplace, the training centre for practical vocational training, and the vocational school (Land, Menzel & Schröder 2022). Vocational didactics has the role of integrating technical innovations into the curricula of construction technology by supporting innovations from the initial stages of TVET offers at the school level. This paper analyses the South African Construction Technology Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (SACTCAPS) at the secondary school level. Different terminology is used to refer to Construction Technology. For example, in Zimbabwe, they refer to the subject as Building Technology, whilst South Africa uses the term Civil Technology. The term Construction Technology is used in this study to align with the call for this publication. However, in some cases, Civil Technology is used to align with the South African context. Construction Technology (CT) was introduced in 2004 as a subject as part of the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) in South African schools. The CT National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for grades 10–12 was created due to a modification to the NCS made in 2011, and the changes took effect in January 2012 (Maeko & Makgato 2017). CT refers to Civil Technology throughout the entire document. To address the issues facing South African education, the CAPS document is a policy statement that aims to improve learning across all school sectors, both theoretically and practically (Maeko & Khoza 2018). This assertion concurs with Land, Menzel and Schröder (2022), who aver that instruction in vocational schools is theoretically oriented, though based on work processes typical of the respective occupation. They further indicate that apart from teaching vocational knowledge and skills, the schools focus on preparing learners for lifelong learning. The text lists the specific facts about each topic it covers, the relative importance of each idea, and the kinds of assignments that fall under each topic. The CT CAPS emphasises a blend of construction, civil services, and woodworking and values both technology and practical skills. CT promotes a solid technical foundation that combines theoretical knowledge with real-world skills. (Department of Basic Education (DBE) 2014). Through vital services like roads, bridges, water purification, waterborne sewage, railway lines, high-rise structures, factories, and housing in general, CT plays a crucial role in supporting the growth of a nation’s environment (Madi 2022).

Workshop practice, safe working practices, and housekeeping are some of the skills that need to be refined and developed through the integrated completion of theory and practice (Mtshali Ramaligela 2019). As the CT course is meant to be practically orientated, less theory should be taught, according to Kennedy (2011). Practical work is a teaching and learning activity involving students observing or manipulating real objects and materials (Rosa & Feisel 2005). To integrate theory and practice in engineering education, Rosa & Feisel (2005) conclude that practical work creates learning experiences in which students use materials to check and observe phenomena in a practical workshop. They also believe lectures should be held in the workshop or laboratory to impart theory and practice.

The construction industry in South Africa faces a significant challenge in meeting the demand for a skilled workforce capable of adapting to rapidly advancing technologies and evolving industry practices. The South African Council for the Project and Construction Management Professions (2022) and Madi (2022) concur that there are skills shortages in the construction industry, and tertiary institutions struggle to attract school leavers to the industry because of low passes. Despite the existence of vocational education programmes aimed at equipping learners with necessary competencies, there are concerns regarding the effectiveness of the current Construction Technology CAPS in addressing these needs. Maeko and Makgato (2017) and Mtshali and Ramaligela (2019) agree that there was little Civil Technology teachers could do to produce learners with good job attainment potential. Specifically, the curriculum has been critiqued for its limited integration of practical hands-on training. These gaps hinder the ability of vocational education to produce graduates who are well prepared for the demands of the construction industry, impacting both individual career prospects and the broader economic development of the country. Therefore, a thorough analysis of the CT CAPS is essential to identify its strengths and weaknesses and propose improvements that align with best practices in vocational didactics and industry standards. This study aims to provide such an analysis to enhance the quality and relevance of vocational education (Mtshali 2020) in construction technology in South Africa.

1.2       The Concept of Vocational Didactics

Vocational didactics is pivotal in addressing skills shortages in various industries (Gessler & Herrera 2015). Focusing on the specific competencies required for different occupations ensures that graduates are immediately employable and productive. Moreover, it supports lifelong learning and adaptability, which are crucial in today’s rapidly changing job market (Cedefop 2015). The Construction Technology curriculum paves the way for students to continue studies at Technical Vocational Education and Training colleges or universities (DBE 2014). Furthermore, students will be ready to pursue learnerships or apprenticeships to prepare them for their trades (ibid). Vocational didactics refers to the principles and methods of teaching vocational education and training (VET) programmes (Gessler & Herrera 2015; Herrera 2015). It encompasses a range of pedagogical strategies designed to equip students with the practical skills and theoretical knowledge required to perform specific tasks and roles within various professions. This concept is crucial for developing competent, job-ready graduates who can meet the labour market demands. Vocational didactics is defined as the theory and practice of teaching and learning in vocational contexts. It involves the selection, organisation, and delivery of content, and the assessment of student learning to ensure that educational outcomes align with occupational standards and industry needs (Nore 2015; Rauner & Maclean 2008). The aim is to create a learning environment that simulates real-world conditions, thereby enabling students to transfer their learning directly to the workplace.

2        Methodology

The methodology employed in this study is document analysis, also referred to as content analysis. Content analysis is a qualitative research method used to interpret and analyse the content of textual, visual, or audio materials (Bowen 2009). This methodology allows researchers to systematically examine the content and context of documents to uncover patterns, themes, and meanings. It is particularly useful for analysing policy documents, curriculum statements, and other formal texts. This study uses this methodology to analyse the South African CT CAPS to identify the curriculum’s vocational didactics components for compatibility with industry expectations.

Document/content analysis involves a systematic review or evaluation of printed and electronic (computer-based and internet-transmitted) documents. Bowen (2009) describes document analysis as a form of qualitative research in which documents are interpreted by the researcher to give voice and meaning to an assessment topic. This method is highly applicable in educational research for analysing curriculum documents, policy statements, and instructional materials.

2.1       Data collection

Data collection involved identifying and gathering relevant documents such as the CT CAPS, national educational frameworks, industry standards, peer-reviewed journal articles, and other related policy documents. To address the research questions, authentic and credible documents were selected for the study (Bowen 2009). However, this study’s data was based on one key document, the CT CAPS at the secondary school level. The other documents mentioned were used merely to confirm the content of the CT CAPS document.

2.2       Data Analysis

Initially, the documents were read to gain an overall understanding of the content. A coding scheme was developed to categorise the content. This involved identifying key themes, concepts, and patterns within the documents. Saldanha (2013) recommends using both a priori codes (predetermined based on the research questions) and emergent codes (arising from the data). Therefore, this study used both codes to avoid excluding critical emerging issues from the data. Four main themes were constructed: curriculum design, pedagogical approaches, assessment and evaluation, and industry alignment. The findings were interpreted within the broader context of the educational and industry landscapes. This involved considering the socioeconomic, cultural and technological factors that influence the curriculum. The Construction Technology CAPS document was compared to existing best practices in vocational didactics to identify gaps, strengths, areas for improvement, partnerships, and curriculum relevance.

3        Findings and Discussion

The following sections present and discuss the findings under curriculum design, pedagogical approaches, assessment and evaluation, industry collaboration, and challenges. The curriculum design mainly focuses on logical structure, progression and content areas. Pedagogical approaches analysed hands-on training, project-based learning, and blended learning. The assessment and evaluation of learners’ work were also analysed. The industry alignment component was analysed to determine whether it aligns with vocational didactics.

3.1       Curriculum Design

Vocational Didactics involves designing curricula that integrate theoretical and practical components (Nore 2015). This ensures that students not only understand the underlying principles of their trade but also acquire hands-on experience. The curriculum should be responsive to changes in technology and industry practices to remain relevant (Billet 2011). Whilst one of the aims of the South African Construction Technology curriculum indicates valuing Indigenous knowledge systems, the Construction Technology CAPs document does not include content on Indigenous materials like thatching (DBE 2014). The Civil Services and Construction specialisations indicate that the content is “environmentally friendly” (green energy) (DBE 2014). The curriculum further states that good housekeeping principles require that all workshops be cleaned regularly, and a suitable waste removal system should be in place to accommodate refuse, off-cut materials, and chemical waste.

Greening the curriculum is defined as adapting training disciplines to sustainability concepts and practices in the curriculum used in formal TVET, as well as non-formal or informal learning (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2017). However, the content overview of the South African Construction Technology Curriculum Policy Statement is unclear on the concept of greening the curriculum. UNESCO-UNEVOC (2017) states that environment-related content and green skills development are part of an evolving TVET curriculum. Therefore, learners must acquire the basic skills at school and hone these skills as they proceed to TVET colleges or universities. Enhancing vocational didactics for green skills ensures that learners are well-informed and guided in learning about sustainability. Table 1 shows the content of the Construction Technology Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement according to the area of specialisation.

Table 1: Main topics in Civil Technology according to area of specialisation (DBE 2014, 11) 

The content aligns with some of the knowledge and skills required to enforce the highest environmental standards and practices for sustainable construction processes as espoused by UNESCO-UNEVOC (2017). Some of the skills are:

• Sustainable building design;
• Sustainable building technologies and construction materials;
• Water supply and sanitation;
• Decentralisation of electricity generation and the integration of renewable energy generation methods into buildings;
• Energy efficiency in buildings;
• Solid waste treatment;
• Reuse of materials and controlled demolitions.

Topics, including sustainable building technologies, energy efficiency in buildings, material reuse, and controlled demolitions, must be included in construction technology curricula as the construction industry is the primary cause of environmental pollution globally. Table 2 shows an extract of the content overview for the generic part of the Civil services specialisation of the SACTCAPS document. The generic part was considered because the learners complete the content in the three specialisations of the curriculum. As shown in Table 2, the content develops in complexity from Grades 10 to 12.

Table 2: Extract of Content Overview-Civil Services (DBE 2014, 17)

It is commendable that the curriculum covers the Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 (OHS). This is in line with the International Labour Organisation (ILO) (2010) Convention Number 167 (Safety and Health in Construction Convention and its Recommendation Number 175. The recommendation highlights that health and safety standards must start at the design stage and continue throughout the construction phases, hence the need for vocational didactics to cover the content at the school level.

3.2       Pedagogical Approaches

The CAPS document stipulates various teaching methods, including direct instruction and project-based learning simulations. These approaches are chosen based on their ability to facilitate experiential learning and develop problem-solving ability skills (Kansanen 2009; Lucas, Spencer & Claxton 2012). The CAPS document states that a topic specialist is needed in civil technology. The civil technology instructor should also be a technician, artisan, or technical educator in a relevant field. Industry-related experience and workshop management skills are essential, and tertiary qualifications in technical teaching are needed. The civil technology teacher must, among other things, manage the classroom, plan for theory and practical work, create practical PAT projects in collaboration with students, administer the school-based assessment (SBA), use creative teaching strategies to keep the material engaging and stay up to date with current technological advancements. The need to provide TVET instructors and trainers with top-notch, pertinent digital skills and the assistance they require to incorporate technology into their teaching and training methods successfully was emphasised by Subrahmanyam & Elson-Rogers (2022). The curriculum stipulates that each learner should have access to a computer with simulation and Computer Aided Design software. However, the curriculum does not mention other construction technologies impacting the industry, i.e., Building Information Modelling (BIM), Drones and Virtual Reality. These cutting-edge technologies drastically impact the construction industry (Planradar 2023). Planradar further highlights that adopting emerging construction technologies streamlines processes, reduces waste, and enhances efficiencies. At the secondary school level, it is important to make learners aware of these technologies, although they might not be used at school since the software is expensive.

3.3        Assessment and Evaluation

Assessing learner performance in vocational education requires both formative and summative approaches. Practical assessments, such as skills demonstrations and project evaluations, are essential to gauge students’ competency in applying what they have learned (Grollmann & Rauner 2007). Schools must comply with all assessment standards regarding the Practical Assessment Task (PAT) and school-based assessment (SBA). SBA shows the learner’s progress during the year, constituting 25% of the learner’s promotion mark. Every assessment assignment included in a formal assessment schedule for the year is considered a formal assessment. Based on the document analysis findings, the common assessment techniques used in the Construction Technology programme are shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Assessment techniques used in the Construction Technology programme

For advancement and certification, teachers mark and officially record formal assessment activities. All formal assessment assignments are moderated for quality control and to guarantee that appropriate standards are upheld. Formal assessment gives teachers a methodical technique to gauge how well students are doing in a specific grade and topic. Examples of formal assessments include projects, oral presentations, demonstrations, performances, tests, examinations, and practical tasks. Formal assessment tasks form part of a year-long formal Programme of Assessment in each grade and subject (DBE 2014).

Peer- and self-assessment are crucial because they enable learners to evaluate and learn from their performance. The outcomes of the informal daily evaluation assignments are not formally documented unless the educator requests it. Teachers may, however, utilise the students’ performance on these evaluation assignments to give parents, the school administration, and learners written or spoken comments. This is crucial if learning obstacles or low participation rates exist.

Schools oversee providing the materials for the PAT and should ensure enough time and money are available for the task’s completion. These workshops help learners refine their skills including simulations and practical skills, machine skills, and workshop practice, so they can participate in the activities assigned for that term. 25% of the learner’s promotion mark is determined by the PAT. It is, therefore, essential to plan practical sessions so that learners have adequate time to practise the skills to complete the PAT (DBE 2014).

For all practical work, there is one teacher for every fifteen learners or a portion of that number to allow differentiated instruction and easy monitoring of learners in technical skills requiring one-on-one interaction between teachers and learners. The official evaluation for Grade 12 is set and graded internally, although it is monitored externally. Activities completed during the year are included in the assessment. Both informal (assessment for learning) and formal (assessment of learning)
(DBE 2014)forms of assessment should be used in grades 10-12. A range of learners’ cognitive capabilities and talents should be accommodated via formal assessments, including:

• Lower order: knowledge;
• Middle order: comprehension and application;
• Higher order: analysis, evaluation and synthesis.

After each academic year, learners complete a final test designed to reflect all the theoretical material studied thus far. The final test, which is externally set, graded and monitored, makes up 50% of the learner’s promotion mark. The assessment methods used must be suitable for the grade and stage of development. The student should be allowed to show some originality and invention when working on a design project. These assignments should be structured to cover the subject material and incorporate a range of tasks intended to meet the subject objectives. The educator should decide what information, skills, and topics must be covered before creating the assignment. The method that guarantees the validity, fairness, and dependability of the assessment tasks is known as moderation. Moderation should be used at the national, provincial, district, and school levels. All topic evaluations should have thorough and suitable moderation procedures in place to ensure their quality. To confirm the quality of internal moderation, the curriculum adviser or facilitator must moderate a sample of these assignments when visiting the schools. Written assessments are moderated to verify that the teacher’s assessment of the learner’s work is accurate.

3.4       Industry Collaboration

Collaboration with industry stakeholders is vital for vocational didactics. Industry partnerships can provide insights into current skills requirements and trends, enabling educators to tailor their programmes accordingly. Additionally, such collaborations can offer students opportunities for internships and on-the-job training (Grollmann & Rauner 2007). Table 4 summarises the types of industry collaboration involved in the Construction Technology programme based on the document analysis findings:

Table 4: Collaboration between the Construction Technology programme and industry stakeholders

Table 4 highlights the multifaceted collaboration between the Construction Technology programme and industry stakeholders to ensure the programme remains relevant, practical, and aligned with industry needs. Dwiyanti and Ridwan (2024) posit that collaboration between vocational schools is essential for addressing the persistent challenge of skills mismatch and high unemployment rates among vocational school graduates. Vocational schools can also benefit by better aligning their curriculum to industry needs. The International Labour Organisation (2021) recommends inviting industry professionals to deliver guest lessons at schools. These interactions would expose learners to best practices and career pathways and enrich their learning experience within the context of the construction sector field (ILO 2021). Vocational didactics is a comprehensive approach to teaching and learning tailored to vocational education and training (Herrera 2015). Integrating theoretical knowledge with practical skills, employing diverse pedagogical strategies, and collaborating with industry prepare students for successful careers in their chosen fields.

According to the content overview, learners are expected to explain the correct layout and installation of the water supply to buildings as prescribed in the Code of Practice South African Bureau of Standard (SABS) 10252 Part 1 Installation of water supply to buildings (DBE 2014, 33). Furthermore, basic drawing symbols relating to the built environment following the South African National Standards SANS 10 143 for building drawings are also taught. Applying SANS 10143 Building regulations in all drawings shows that vocational didactics comply with the national standards.

Learners are introduced to computer-aided drawings and taught to interpret advanced drawings related to the building industry. To keep teachers abreast of the most recent advancements in the built environment, it is recommended that schools subscribe to building and civil engineering journals and other publications.

3.5       Challenges

Civil Technology (CT) is a subject that requires sustained support. The Civil Technology workshop requires regular resourcing for completion of practical work and maintenance. The SACTCAPS document stipulates that the Construction Technology subject should be supported with safety equipment, tools and equipment, consumable materials, PAT resources, and teaching, and learning support materials (TLSM). Implementing effective vocational didactics can be challenging due to several factors, such as the need for up-to-date resources and equipment, ongoing professional development for educators, and the necessity of maintaining strong ties with industry partners. Mtshali (2020) observed that teachers did not have adequate resources for the PAT. Furthermore, ensuring that vocational programmes are accessible and inclusive for all students, including those with disabilities, is essential for equitable education (Avis 2014).

Mtshali (2020) found that because the practical assessment for CT was scenario-based and did not focus on technological or design issues, it did not promote critical thinking. This runs counter to the goal of the South African curriculum for CT education, which is to provide students with the problem-solving, flexibility, inventiveness, creativity, and practical skills necessary for technical literacy. Because of how the scenarios were written, learners could only come up with one answer. This prevented the PAT from covering critical thinking skills including analysis, assessment, inference, and self-regulation.

4        Conclusion

This study undertook a comprehensive document analysis of the South African Construction Technology Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement in order to evaluate its effectiveness in preparing students for the construction industry. The analysis focused on the curriculum design, pedagogical approaches, alignment with industry needs, and inclusivity.

The findings indicate that while the curriculum is well structured and covers essential aspects of construction technology, some areas require enhancement. The integration of practical, hands-on training remains inadequate, limiting learners’ readiness for real-world challenges. Furthermore, the curriculum’s incorporation of modern construction technologies and digital tools is insufficient, raising concerns about its relevance in a rapidly evolving industry.

Industry collaboration emerged as a critical component of effective vocational education. However, the current level of engagement between educational institutions and construction firms is lacking. Strengthening these partnerships could provide valuable work-integrated learning opportunities, thereby enhancing students’ practical skills and employability.

Ongoing research and development in vocational didactics are essential to keep pace with technological advancements and evolving industry requirements. The South African Construction Technology Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement exhibits several strengths but also some gaps that must be addressed to optimise its effectiveness. Enhancing practical training components, integrating contemporary technologies, fostering industry partnerships, ensuring equitable resource distribution, and promoting inclusivity are pivotal steps towards improving the curriculum. Continuous evaluation and iterative improvements informed by feedback from educators, learners, and industry stakeholders are essential to maintain the curriculum’s relevance and efficacy in preparing students for successful careers in the construction industry. While document analysis provides valuable insights, it lacks the depth and real-time relevance that could be obtained through primary data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, or direct observation. The research findings are specific to the South African context and standards, such as SANS and SABS codes, which may not be generalisable to other regions or international construction practices. The research identifies the need for resources like CAD software and journal subscriptions but does not explore the financial and logistical challenges schools face in acquiring these. These limitations suggest opportunities for future research to adopt a more holistic, data-driven, and participatory approach to deepen insights into vocational education in construction technology.

Further studies should investigate the enduring consequences of students who successfully finish the construction technology curriculum, evaluating their professional paths and contributions to the sector. Furthermore, comparative studies of South African vocational curricula to those in other nations may yield insightful information for best practices in vocational didactics.

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Abstract

This study collects data on inclusive education practices within Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions across Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand. Utilising a systematic review methodology, the research examines international policies, government reports, and peer-reviewed journal articles relevant to inclusive education in the TVET sector. The objective is to present an overview of current practices, policies, and guidelines, assess the provision of inclusive facilities and amenities in these institutions, and identify the challenges encountered. Despite inclusive education policies in the three countries, the TVET sector continues to inadequately address the diverse inclusive needs of students and other stakeholders. TVET facilities in these nations remain systemically segregated, thereby excluding individuals with special needs. The literature indicates that effective inclusive practices depend more on the institutional implementation of inclusive processes than students’ abilities. The findings reveal gaps in both policy and practice, highlighting that many TVET teachers lack training in inclusive education pedagogies. Furthermore, there are inadequate funding mechanisms to modernise existing infrastructure, acquire specialised equipment for laboratory work, and support inclusive pedagogies and assessments. Leaders within TVET institutions must recognise the exclusionary barriers faced by individuals and develop solutions to overcome these obstacles.

Keywords: Disability, inclusive education, inclusive practices, special education, Botswana, South Africa, Thailand

1        Background and Introduction

Inclusive education practice defines the extent and techniques whereby normal school systems attempt to provide education to differently-abled children in a natural classroom setting (UNESCO 2012). Furthermore, UNESCO (2020) extended the understanding of inclusive education practices to include all actions taken to address all forms of exclusion and marginalisation, disparities, and inequalities that undermine access and participation in learning outcomes. Sharma (2015) asserts that inclusive education promotes equitable access to the same education standards for children from different socio-economic backgrounds to reach their full potential despite all other variables. TVET is frequently viewed as an inclusive educational route for students excluded from mainstream upper-secondary education (Jayaram et al. 2017). However, Maggiolini and Molteni (2013) argue that inclusive practices remain a major challenge for several institutions of higher learning. According to Alla-Mensah et al. (2021), TVET can also perpetuate the exclusion of marginalised groups due to its curricular designs and limited capacities to accommodate students’ diverse and often complex needs. Implementing measures to integrate individuals with disabilities into the TVET system is crucial, and each country should consider achieving an inclusive TVET system (International Labour Office, Gender, Equality and Diversity 2013). Critically comparing international trends is an essential standard practice in inclusive education practices in TVET to adopt best practices (DHET 2018; Schröder & Dehnbostel 2017). Hence, this paper systematically reviewed published literature on the inclusive education practices in TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa and Thailand against international standards of inclusive practices espoused by UNESCO.

Generally, UNESCO (2012) outlined some fundamental inclusive education practices that include:

• coming up with legal frameworks and normative instruments to promote inclusion in education systems,
• enforcing international obligations to the right to education for all people, 
• increased advocacy for inclusive practices in educational institutions,
• addressing all forms of inequalities and exclusion in education systems, 
• adopting inclusive pedagogical methodologies in teaching, learning, and assessment, 
• ensuring that all infrastructure and the learning environment are appropriate, accessible, and inclusive to all people even those with disabilities.

Guaranteeing appropriate inclusive educational opportunities for learners with disabilities and the socially excluded remains a significant challenge that TVET learning institutions face. Generally, there is limited literature on inclusive practices in TVET education in particular, as compared to general education, hence the need for this paper. There is a need for TVET inclusive education policies and a strong commitment by all stakeholders to implement such policies. As such, Faas, Smith, and Darmody (2018) assert that implementing inclusive practices in TVET institutions requires capable and compassionate leaders who are committed advocates of inclusivity within educational establishments. Those in leadership are supposed to demonstrate a commitment to creating inclusive school environments that accommodate students from diverse upbringings. Such practices should recognise and acknowledge differences between learners, reflecting variations in the school curriculum and learning materials, and further developing inclusive cultural awareness in teaching personnel and empowering learners (UNESCO 2020). However, the varying inclusive practices in TVET institutions in the three countries have been shaped by cultural and social beliefs, compounded by political and economic interventions. Further challenges of inclusive pedagogical practices have been brought about by the level of responses and adoption of blended teaching and learning methodologies during the COVID-19 era.

While the COVID-19 pandemic presented numerous opportunities for adopting new pedagogical approaches utilising digital technologies and online interactions, the pandemic’s effects on inclusive practices for socially marginalised individuals warrant further investigation (Hondonga et al. 2021). TVET institutions are challenged to offer a great deal of flexibility by investing in specialised infrastructure and qualified personnel to ensure that all exclusionary impediments are removed in the use of blended learning. Institutions also require novel, yet adaptable, inclusive, and sustainable teaching and assessment methods. However, institutions must digitise in a manner that does not compromise the acquisition of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) skills by TVET learners for them to fit well in modern workplaces (Pirzada & Gulzar 2023). 

Helmy and Fairman (2023) highlight the importance of TVET teachers acknowledging and tackling the exclusionary obstacles encountered by students engaging in online learning. All interventions must, however, keep emphasising uncompromised efficient skills development, which can still be realised through using virtual reality and augmented reality in simulated and remote laboratory settings. Therefore, TVET teachers are key to promoting inclusive practices in the institutions by creating an enabling environment to ensure that all learners can access TVET education despite any form of disability (Pirzada et al. 2024). Inclusive practices also embrace gender inclusion to allow males and females to have full access to all forms of education without discrimination (Sharma 2015). Modern TVET training should not make some trades and vocations a preserve for one gender domination to break the stereotypes. In Botswana and South Africa, gender enrolment disparities are still evident across most TVET programmes, and this is rooted in the past and present social beliefs and political influences (Mosalagae 2016; Nkambule & Ngubane 2023).

Even with the current TVET training policies and institutional assistance for students with impairments, each student still needs reasonable accommodation. According to the ILO (2016), reasonable accommodation is the customised modification of the surroundings to satisfy the special requirements of people with disabilities. Therefore, it is crucial to cultivate leadership abilities that allow TVET institutional leaders to efficiently structure their institutions using stakeholders’ combined professional expertise, knowledge, and experiences (DiPaola et al. 2004).

1.1       Research Objectives

The primary objectives of this paper are to:

1. Determine whether policies are in place to facilitate the implementation of inclusive practices in TVET institutions in the three countries.
2. Investigate the prevalence of inclusive practices in TVET institutions.
3. Identify the challenges faced by the three countries in implementing inclusive practices in TVET institutions and propose recommendations for improvement.

This article aims to promote the improvement of inclusive practices in TVET programme delivery and advance changes that provide all prospective students, including those with disabilities, better access to learning settings and infrastructure. The goal of the comparative analysis between Botswana, South Africa and Thailand is to pinpoint current procedures, areas for improvement, and best practices that the three nations may adopt. In the end, increased inclusion for people with special needs in TVET professions and improved socio-economic fairness in society would result from emphasising role clarity for all TVET practitioners and leaders about inclusive education methods. Additionally, this would guarantee that students, regardless of their disability, have equitable access to educational resources and services customised to meet their requirements.

The paper’s findings and suggestions will help educate policymakers about the issues at hand and offer potential solutions to improve inclusive practices in TVET programmes. This article will enhance the limited research on inclusive practices and the experiences of students with disabilities at TVET institutions in poor nations.

1.2       Theoretical framework

The study was grounded in social model theory, which emerged from disability activists’ work during the 1970s and 80s. This model of disability arose as a response to the constraints associated with the medical model of disability (D’Alessio 2011, 44). The social model theory posits that by designing societies and structures accessible for individuals with disabilities, such individuals would not encounter limitations in their participation within the broader community (Retief & Letšosa 2018). Similarly, according to the social model, disability is perceived to stem from societal mental attitudes and physical infrastructures, rather than being solely due to an individual’s medical condition (Goering 2015). Instead, it is societal inadequacy to furnish suitable services and adequately address the needs of disabled individuals within societal structures such as TVET institutions (Goering 2015). In the realm of TVET institutions, the social model of disability focuses on establishing inclusive environments that eliminate obstacles to learning and engagement for all students, including the socially marginalised. The model acknowledges that inclusive practices encompass not only physical accessibility but also curriculum flexibility, teaching methods, and support services that accommodate diverse needs (Mosia & Phasha 2017). This systematic review focuses on inclusive policies and systemic challenges that impede the complete integration of students with disabilities in TVET institutions.

1.3       Inclusive Education Policies 

According to UNICEF (2023), International Organisations such as the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations (UN) have a track record of promoting and advocating for all people’s right to a decent education. According to ILO (2017), the same fundamental rights to education for all children are inscribed in both the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The need for quality education for all children is consistent with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.5, which supports equitable access to vocational training for marginalised groups, such as people with disabilities, at all levels of society (UNESCO 2020).

On the other hand, The International Labour Organisation (ILO) policy paper on disability inclusion further weighs in that all people working in TVET institutions must comprehend the practical requirements for effective disability inclusion, considering the diverse types of disabilities and educational backgrounds among individuals (ILO 2012; Matafora 2019). Furthermore, inclusive education plays a pertinent role in advancing SDGs 4 and 8 which pertain to education and employment, respectively (Abbott et al. 2017). Despite the emphasis placed on TVET in national and international policies, there appear to be limited specific strategic initiatives addressing the inclusion of marginalised groups in this sector (African Union 2018).

Research and literature highlight a diverse array of both negative and positive experiences encountered by students and staff with disabilities in post-school education and training (PSET) on a global scale (Mosalagae 2021; Nkambule & Ngubane 2023). International adherence to legislative and policy requirements, coupled with recognition of business cases for addressing disability equity issues, has facilitated progress in numerous countries. Legislation and policies play a pivotal role at the national level in advocating for the rights of individuals with disabilities. Institutions worldwide are striving to transition towards more inclusive policies and practices, moving away from remedial interventions (Vo 2022). Inclusion entails facilitating comprehensive and fair participation in and advancement through the PSET system for all prospective and current students and staff.

Different countries have different approaches and policies to inclusive practices in TVET institutions. In Australia, the Australian Apprenticeships Incentives Programme offers various forms of assistance to support apprentices with disabilities. This includes the Disabled Australian Apprentice Wage Support, which provides payments to employers and funds for tutorial, interpreter, and mentor services for apprentices (ILO 2011). In Malaysia, the OKU Talent Enhancement Programme (OTEP Scheme) under the National Human Resource Development Fund allows employers full financial assistance to send employees with disabilities to designated training programmes. In India, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, Art 19, outlines guidelines on providing loans to support people with disabilities in TVET in formal and informal training institutions. In Sri Lanka, the Employers’ Network on Disability, established in 2000 by the Employers’ Federation of Ceylon (EFC), seeks to enhance training and employment opportunities for individuals with disabilities in the Sri Lankan business sector (ILO 2011). However, other countries offer targeted admissions and training opportunities in TVET institutions to individuals with disabilities and those with special needs.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) and the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities do not provide a specific definition of disability. Instead, they acknowledge disability as a dynamic concept shaped by societal factors, particularly when individuals with disabilities are prevented from fully participating in all aspects of life and when society does not adequately uphold their rights and address their needs. Other related definitions of disability share certain common elements even if they emphasise or word them differently like: 

• the presence of impairment,
• internal and external limitations or barriers which hinder full and equal participation,
• focus on the abilities of the person with a disability,
• loss or lack of access to opportunities owing to environmental barriers and/or negative perceptions and attitudes of society.

In countries like South Africa, Botswana, and Bangladesh, quotas or equity targets are in place to create opportunities for learners with disabilities to enrol in TVET institutions. For instance, in Bangladesh, the Department of Technical Education (DTE) initiated a pilot project to implement the recommendations of the National Strategy for mainstreaming disability TVET institutes (Aziz 2023; ILO 2016). This project included a five percent admission quota for individuals with disabilities and incorporated disability inclusion in the annual plan, budget, and procurement process. Additionally, it integrated disability considerations into the performance appraisal and monitoring system (Aziz 2023). Botswana public institutions’ admissions policies also have a reservation of 5% for the special educational needs (SEN) and, orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in their programmes (Mosalagae 2016; Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). Arguments are that the quota and equity targets avoid unnecessary competition and bias for enrolments in TVET institutions that may be tilted towards people without disability.

2 Methodology

To ensure transparency in the research process, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews. A systematic PRISMA criterion was used to include and exclude relevant literature for the study since it provides a structured approach to conducting systematic reviews (Moher et al. 2009). 

We examined databases known for granting access to interdisciplinary research studies, such as ERIC, PsycINFO, PubMed, and others, to do an exhaustive search for pertinent literature on inclusive education methods at TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand. The main objectives of this study were considered when formulating the search terms. The search was limited to papers published within the last 20 years to guarantee relevance to modern inclusive education approaches. Only studies published in English were included. The search strings used are:

• (“inclusive education” OR ‘inclusive practices”) AND (“TVET” OR “Technical and Vocational Education and Training” AND “Botswana”,
• (“inclusive curriculum” OR “accessibility” OR “accommodations”) AND (“vocational schools” OR “technical colleges”) AND “South Africa”,
• (“disability inclusion” OR “special educational needs”) AND (“vocational education” OR “skills training”) AND “Thailand”.

We used the same strings, only changing the country name to refine our search for a particular country. These search strings combine terms related to inclusive education, disability, and specific country names to retrieve relevant literature from academic databases and journals.

The study design included peer-reviewed journal articles, policy documents, and reports from reputable authoritative organisations such as the African Union, International Labour Organisation (ILO), OECD and UNESCO. We also considered studies conducted in or specifically addressing inclusive practices in TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa or Thailand. The review included learners with diverse needs, such as those with disabilities and special needs within TVET settings. The studies were supposed to examine inclusive practices, policies, interventions and challenges in TVET institutions. Non-peer-reviewed literature such as editorials, conference abstracts and dissertations were excluded. Studies conducted outside Botswana, South Africa, or Thailand that were not relevant to the inclusive practices in these countries were excluded. We also excluded studies focusing exclusively on general education settings or other educational levels beyond TVET institutions. Both authors extracted data for Thailand, while the first author completed South Africa and the second author did Botswana. The authors consulted and checked the results periodically and independently to avoid bias. Figure 1 illustrates the flowchart of the article selection process.

*B=Botswana, SA=South Africa, TH=Thailand

Figure 1: Article Selection Process Flowchart

3        Findings

3.1       Inclusive Education Policies in Botswana

The Botswana government has demonstrated its commitment to providing inclusive education, including TVET, to learners with disabilities by signing various international agreements. For example, Botswana endorsed the Jomtien Declaration (UNESCO 1990) and signed the Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO 2000) to promise to provide education to all citizens, particularly the most vulnerable and underprivileged. This commitment is further reflected in a revised Act of 2024 on Persons with Disabilities (Government of Botswana 2024). The act, amongst other tasks, mandates the establishment of the Disability Coordination Office and the National Disability Council to promote equal access to facilities and education for all people in Botswana. While the initial education policy of Botswana in 1977 did not explicitly address special needs or TVET, it established the principle of Kagisano to govern all educational advancements. Kagisano emphasised the promotion of social harmony through democratic principles and the concept of “botho”, which embodies interdependence and humanity among individuals (Government of Botswana 1977). The Revised National Policy for Education (RNPE) of 1994 came up with clear recognition and major policy guidelines for providing quality and equitable education to all children at all levels, especially the most vulnerable and disadvantaged (Government of Botswana 1994). Two significant recommendations outlined in the policy were the assignment of a senior teacher in each school to oversee the education of handicapped children and the incorporation of special needs education components into the pre-service or in-service training of all teachers (ibid). Other refinements and improvements to the commitments are implemented through the National Development Plan (NDP).

Specifically to TVET, The National Policy on Vocational Education and Training (Government of Botswana 1997) acknowledged that disadvantaged groups, such as disabled students and women, should be given special attention and that special training programmes may be required. More focus was placed on the recognition of special educational needs (SEN) and orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in institutional enrolment strategies to improve access and equity to TVET training in several institutions in the country (Dart 2007). A comprehensive policy regarding inclusive education was enacted in 2013, and there was a gradual growth of enrolled students in general education. However, the exact statistics could not be ascertained due to inaccuracies with them (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay 2015). Further gaps in the number of SEN/OVC students enrolled in TVET programmes started to grow and were compounded by a negligible number of studies on inclusivity in TVET programmes in Botswana.

3.1.1      Achievements and Challenges

The positive policy shifts in Botswana towards implementing international agreements on improved access to quality education and training are well documented. Although the number of SEN/OVC learners has increased in general education, the number of the same category of learners enrolled in TVET programmes and institutions has remained generally low (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay 2015). 

Despite the government’s good policies and goodwill, meeting the requirements of inclusive practices in TVET institutions in Botswana has been a daunting task. Molosiwa and Mpofu (2017) found that several students face exclusionary practices rather than inclusion. For example, deficiencies persist in enrolment processes, teaching and learning, and the provision of inclusive infrastructure in school settings (Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). Different approaches have been pursued, creating a dilemma regarding the best way forward. On the one hand, some TVET colleges have isolated students with disabilities from their “normal” counterparts. The argument for this is to allow the directed provision of resources and infrastructure to satisfy the educational demands of those learners (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay 2015). This approach is, however, criticized in that learners with disabilities are stigmatised and marginalised with connotations of epistemological exclusion (Norwich 2010; Norwich 2014; Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). Students with disabilities will be perceived to be social misfits who cannot mix with other students and lack social skills, which may affect them later when seeking employment opportunities. 

On the other hand, inclusive education theories have influenced a mixed-classes approach for both disabled and non-disabled students. This approach advocates for equal and inclusive treatment of students where none feels different from the other in the general provision of pedagogical resources except for individualised support (Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). This approach allows all students in the institution to socially integrate into the learning, social and general institutional environments and befits the social model of disability (Elliott et al. 2015, 2). Whilst all approaches are pursued, challenges remain in providing inclusive practices, especially in TVET institutions requiring specialised equipment (Svendby 2020). The majority of TVET teachers are unaware of students’ disabilities and the use of inclusive pedagogies in their teaching. This lack of understanding means students may not receive adequate support to achieve their full academic potential. At the most, it implies that students with disabilities may be denied full participation in the learning process (ibid). However, Mosalagae (2021) agrees that there is little published material on inclusive practices in Botswana’s TVET institutions and the true voices and experiences of learners with disabilities in such institutions. 

Mosalegae and Bekker (2021) conducted a study on inclusion in TVET colleges in Botswana. Findings suggested that students had a positive perception of good inclusionary practices both in class and college environments. The study further indicated that learners felt that they benefitted from socially inclusive mixed classes and collaborative teaching practices between their teachers and special educators. Some of the inclusive practices pointed out include pedagogical and social inclusion, the creation of clear, sustainable learning opportunities for all, empowerment, forming teamwork, forming friendships, the provision of adequate and suitable resources, and appropriate inclusive infrastructure and learning environments. 

3.2       Inclusive Education Policies in South Africa

Presently, the oversight of fifty public TVET colleges in South Africa falls under the responsibility of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). With an inclusive educational approach, the South African school system aims to include all students, especially those with impairments. The implementation of disability rights in South Africa must be contextualised within its distinct political, social and legislative framework. Several TVET colleges enrol a diverse range of students for certification programs, some of whom have learning disabilities that are disruptive in the classroom. There have been no notable advancements in implementing inclusive education policy since the formal publication of “Education White Paper 6” (DoE 2001; Walton 2011; Chataika et al. 2012). The White Paper 6 (2001) emphasised the government’s disapproval of the exclusion of disabled individuals from mainstream society and pursues to address this by including disabled learners with able-bodied peers with the required support, in addition to facilitating a deeper comprehension of contextual challenges to aid in the identification of suitable solutions and community engagement.

The DHET in South Africa has been dedicated to establishing an inclusive PSET sector, particularly emphasising inclusive education in TVET colleges (Kungwane & Korf-Taljaard 2023). In its advocacy for assistance to students with disabilities within the higher education system, the Education White Paper on Post-School Education (DHET 2013) notably emphasises the creation of an inclusive higher education milieu (DHET 2013). Acknowledging the persistent challenges of bias and obstacles in accessing curricula, student financing, and support services encountered by students with disabilities, the document identifies deficiencies in implementing inclusive policies (DHET 2013; Alinea 2022).

By integrating individuals with impairments into regular programs, the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) has significantly improved the educational and training options for impaired individuals. Despite significant progress, the PSET system’s handling of disability rights is still disjointed and disconnected from the institutional change and diversity initiatives now in place. The Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post-School Education and Training System is essential for directing enhancements in the accessibility to and achievement within post-school education and training, encompassing private institutions, for individuals with disabilities (Chiwandire 2019; DHET 2018). The Strategic Policy Framework on Disability delineates comprehensive guidelines encompassing all institutions and programmes within the PSET system, including the DHET and its regional offices, public and private educational institutions such as universities, TVET and CET colleges, and skills providers, agencies, and other entities. 

To ensure change that benefits South Africans with disabilities and other marginalised groups, the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities lays out the strategic approach and anchors for realising the rights of individuals with disabilities (DoSD 2015; Nkambule & Ngubane 2023). As a policy, it establishes guidelines for what constitutes acceptable behaviour and encourages the creation of inclusive environments that offer individuals with disabilities the same benefits and opportunities as others.

The objective of the social model of disability is to ensure equitable participation of individuals with impairments across all facets of society. The model serves as the cornerstone for the options available to students with disabilities to assist them in overcoming the challenges that exist on TVET campuses. Because the majority of South African educational institutions were not intentionally constructed with accessibility for students with impairments in mind, there are inherent hurdles (Tugli et al. 2017). In addition, students with disabilities must consider how their limitations will affect their ability to participate in educational programmes with reasonable accommodation. 

Utilising a qualitative critical discourse analysis methodology to scrutinise the policy text concerning the funding of individuals with learning disabilities within the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS), Nkambule and Ngubane (2023) shed light on the challenges faced by students with learning disabilities. Their investigation underscores the necessity for a funding policy that recognises the diverse nature of disability. Despite the provisions within the Norms and Standards for Funding TVET colleges that allow for supplementary funding for students with disabilities (DHET 2018), there remains a lack of dedicated funding to enhance the accessibility of buildings at TVET colleges.

Delubom, Marongwe, and Buka (2020) investigated the obstacles encountered by the management of TVET colleges in implementing inclusive education, particularly concerning students with disabilities. The study revealed persistent barriers to accessibility and support for students with disabilities within TVET colleges. The research also identified various challenges faced by the college management, including insufficient infrastructure, funding constraints, inadequate lecturer training, and a shortage of staff to assist students with disabilities (Walton 2011). As a solution, it was suggested that TVET colleges establish Disability Service Units and either hire trained lecturers or provide training for existing lecturers to better support disabled students in their learning process. Munyaradzi, Arko-Achemfuor, and Quan-Baffour (2023) echoed these findings, affirming that students with disabilities encounter difficulties that disrupt their academic progression. Additionally, they observed that the existing student support mechanisms within the TVET sector inadequately address the diverse needs of students with disabilities.

According to Munyaradzi et al. (2023), the fundamental tenets of inclusive education in South Africa include respect for uniqueness and diversity in culture and democratic values like equality and human rights. Scholarly research suggests that several social developments, such as modifications to educational policy and contextual dynamics, have impeded the progress of inclusive education. This is particularly evident in how TVET colleges handle diversity (Kungwane & Korf-Taljaard 2023; Walton 2011). As a result, suggestions have been made to create Disability Service Units and collaborate with businesses to improve inclusion.

3.3        Inclusive Education Policies in Thailand

In Thailand, inclusive education takes the form of full-time combined study, which is comparable to the mainstream setup. Students with disabilities are mentioned in several significant Thai government education papers. The majority of the documents, however, do not specify the location of specialised schools for children with impairments. According to Vibulpatanavong (2017), most public institutions in Thailand that admit students with disabilities are referred to as integration schools rather than inclusive schools. How integration schools serve students with disabilities differs.

People with disabilities in Thailand are entitled to education as specified in the national education legislation or national education plan, which suits their physical and mental condition in specialised educational institutions, general education institutions, alternative education, or non-formal education, according to the Persons with Disabilities Empowerment Act, B.E. 2550 (Thai Government 2007). The agencies above are responsible for furnishing disabled individuals with appropriate and essential facilities, media, services, and other educational aids (Janyam 2022). The statute protects the educational rights of people with impairments. Nonetheless, special education or general education institutions may instruct those with disabilities. Two types of education streams are available to people with disabilities: formal and non-formal. The Education for Persons with Disabilities Act, B.E. 2551, was approved by the Thai Government in 2008. According to the statute, people with disabilities are entitled to the following kinds of education: 

• Provision of free education, including educational technologies, accommodations, media, services, and support from birth or the onset of a disability.
• The abilities, interests, and needs of the disabled individual should be considered when selecting educational services, institutions, systems, and types.
• Delivery of quality education that meets high-quality assurance standards, with curriculum, instruction, and assessment tailored to individual needs. 

The Education for Persons with Disabilities Act does not prioritise mainstream education over special education for individuals with disabilities. However, the statute affirms, for the first time, the right of individuals with disabilities to choose their educational providers or systems. This provision represents a significant advancement, empowering people with disabilities to determine the type of education they wish to pursue (Kusuma 2021). 

In 2017, the Thai government introduced the National Education Plan for 2017–2036 (Thai Ministry of Education 2017). This plan includes the implementation of an inclusive education policy. However, as Vibulpatanavong (2017) notes, the plan lacks enforceability. Despite this, it sets forth objectives to improve education for individuals with disabilities. The plan asserts that children with disabilities, if able, have the right to be educated alongside their peers in regular classes. This suggests that some students with disabilities may not be able to attend classes with regular students. 

Although the laws and policies in Thailand reflect that the Thai government is committed to improving education for persons with disabilities, much further progress is needed (Vibulpatanavong 2017). For example, despite the law providing free education for persons with disabilities at all educational levels, including the tertiary level, the full implementation of the envisaged prospects has not been realised.

The Ministry of Education states that there are nine different categories of disabilities in Thailand: autism, learning disabilities, language and communication disorders, behavioural disorders, physical disabilities and health impairments, intellectual disabilities, hearing impairments, visual impairments, and multiple disabilities (Hill & Sukbunpant 2013). The Education for Persons with Disabilities Act protects those with one of the nine disability categories. However, classification can also result in stereotyping and labelling. Therefore, even though classification could be a technique that many teachers are unfamiliar with, it is crucial to try to eliminate categorisation and support all children who need protection without categorisation (Jayaram 2017; UNESCO 2009).

According to Kosuwan, Viriyangkura, and Swerdlik (2014), there are instances in which disabled students in Thailand’s conventional classrooms may reflect physical inclusion and not an education that is suitable for them. Furthermore, it is rare in Thailand for conventional classrooms and TVET institutions to accommodate students with special needs through adaptations and adjustments (Kosuwan et al. 2014). Providing curricular and instructional modification training to teachers could improve the inclusion of all students in regular classes. 

The Thai Ministry of Labour has been offering training classes to underprivileged students as part of a special plan since 2020 to assist students who might have trouble paying for their tuition. The Equitable Education Fund (EEF), created by the Equitable Education Act of 2018, provides grants to underprivileged students, including those with disabilities, so they can enrol in TVET programmes, assisting vocational institutions in raising the quality of their offerings. However, there is unease that certain underprivileged students, especially those pursuing postsecondary TVET, will not have access to sufficient financial assistance when needed (OECD 2021). Chalapati and Chalapati (2020) assert that the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) provides subsidies to private vocational education institutions, which are encouraged to grow Thailand’s capacity for training and education. Subsidies for VET private high schools differ according to the students’ profiles and fields of study. For instance, VET institutions that train members of underprivileged groups, such as students from marginalised groups or students with disabilities, receive more subsidies than other types of institutions.

3.3.1      Thailand’s obstacles to inclusive education

Although Thailand is progressing towards inclusive education, there are still barriers that must be overcome, such as mental, physical, and regulatory limitations (Vorapanya & Dunlap 2014). Although Thailand supports impaired students’ education, more work has to be done to expand the notion of inclusive education (Othman et al. 2022). All community youngsters must attend Thai schools regardless of their readiness or aptitude. Bualar (2016) asserts that children with disabilities are prevented from attending conventional schools because universal design is not well positioned in Thailand. Along with the buildings and environments found in schools, the commute from home to schoolis one of the physical obstacles (Kantavong 2018). People’s attitudes toward disability in Thailand are influenced by cultural influences, which may result in the notion that peers with impairments are less important. Thus, in addition to teaching Thai pupils how to assist their peers who have disabilities, they must also learn to appreciate and understand their peers.

Agbenyega and Klibthong (2015) claim that some teachers were unable to adapt the curriculum for students with disabilities and frequently taught the entire class using the same methods and materials, disregarding the special needs of each student. It is crucial to enhance pre-service regular teacher preparation programmes to incorporate curriculum and instructional adaptations for students with disabilities in regular classroom settings. This is because, in addition to special education teachers,  regular teachers and all other staff members are now accountable for meeting the needs of children with disabilities. To ensure opportunities are of the same calibre throughout all locations, efforts must be made to improve access for specific underrepresented populations, particularly adults (Janyam 2022; Vorapanya & Dunlap 2014). 

All people should have opportunities for inclusion due to TVET system policies (Moonpa et al. 2021). Providing greater opportunities to adults, including women, the group that is currently disadvantaged in the Thai TVET system, will improve system equity and help address skills shortages in the Thai labour market.

4        Discussion

Although policies and their implementation strategies differ, there is an indication of deliberate goodwill and effort as reflected in the targeted enrolment strategies and budgetary commitments to implementing inclusive policies and practices in TVET institutions. Even though Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand are working to advance inclusive TVET education, there are still obstacles that they must all overcome. There are certain policy obstacles at the macro level or the governmental level. The meso level, or TVET institutions, is characterised by knowledge, financial, attitude, and physical constraints. The social model of disability informs the discussion of these points. In general, inclusive education requires refinement. Inclusive funding for students with impairments is also required. Figure 2 shows the interrelationship of enabling practices and factors to achieve inclusivity in providing inclusive TVET education.

Figure 2: Framework for inclusive education in TVET (Source: authors)

The literature suggests that TVET colleges should ensure that students with impairments can access educational programmes in schools and become accepted as integral members of educational societies rather than requiring these students to have a specific level of aptitude to be admitted to colleges. It should be recognised that different kinds of disability require varied accommodations in terms of physical impediments such as infrastructure. It was observed that cultural impacts on attitudes regarding impediments were common in Thailand. According to Laska, Vibulpatanavong, and Evans (2017), most Thai students have “songsarn” or sympathy for their disabled classmates. This mindset is ingrained in Thai education. While this is a good practice, it may create the impression that classmates with impairments are less important. This means that in addition to teaching students how to support their classmates who are disabled, lecturers also need to teach them how to understand and appreciate their peers. One identified knowledge gap was the training that TVET lecturers lack to integrate curriculum and instructional modifications for students with disabilities into regular lectures. These topics need to be covered in the curriculum for pre-service teacher preparation. This is crucial because, in addition to special educational lecturers, TVET institutions, mainstream lecturers, and anyone else working with individuals with disabilities should address the needs of these students.

5        Conclusions

The review revealed that the three countries, Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand, are committed to providing quality education to all people despite their different disabilities. This is reflected in the existence of specific inclusive policies in each country, with evidence of continuous revisions to existing policies and guidelines to embrace developing and modern trends of inclusive practices in education and training. Several notable achievements have been accomplished in enrolling and sponsoring people from disadvantaged groups, but the three countries face several challenges in fulfilling their complete intentions. Thailand still has to overcome obstacles to inclusion in TVET training, including legislative, structural, mental, and informational ones. In contrast, Botswana still faces the dilemma of choosing the right approach of either standard or special classes for learners with specific disabilities. Several societal shifts have adversely impacted the adoption of inclusive education in South Africa. A few of the changes in society include context-specific issues like how diversity is managed in TVET colleges and educational reforms. While the literature provides valuable insights into the challenges and strategies for inclusive education in TVET, there is limited direct information specifically addressing “TVET-inclusive education”. 

The studies reviewed exposed the obstacles and developments experienced by inclusive TVET education. Every country has its obstacles and progress. Although the study does not systematically compare the three countries, it gives insights into how inclusive TVET education is developing in Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand. 

6        Recommendations

TVET institutions must organise capacity-building workshops to upskill current employees and make their practices more inclusive. Governments that wish to support inclusive education in TVET must periodically assess their inclusive education policies and practices to identify their advantages and disadvantages and maintain current global developments. To comply with the social model theory and eliminate all stereotypes in TVET education delivery, the notion of inclusivity needs refinement. All three nations must remain steadfast in their resolve to modernise their educational facilities and infrastructure to be suitable, open, and inclusive to everyone, including those with impairments. Empirical studies must be conducted in the three countries to gather perspectives and experiences from students, lecturers, and institutional leaders regarding the prevalence of inclusivity in TVET institutions. Empirical research must guide policy decisions and behaviours and align with global norms for inclusive behaviour.

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With the spread of COVID-19, education and training institutions around the world have moved towards online instruction to ensure the continuity of learning for students at a distance. Transition to an online environment poses special challenges in the delivery of TVET courses, which involve the development of hands-on skills as well as theoretical learning. The transition poses further challenges for developing countries in terms of the preparedness of training systems and the availability of digital technologies for online teaching. This paper presents the findings of research concerning the readiness and prevalence of Botswana Private Tertiary Education Providers (BAPTEP) for using online teaching platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic. A quantitative research design was used to gather data from a purposive sample of 119 participants from 4 BAPTEP colleges, comprising 18 TVET lecturers and 101 TVET students. Online questionnaires containing both closed-ended and open-ended questions were used, both to respect social distancing requirements and to obtain responses quickly. Descriptive statistics were then used to analyse and present the results, which exposed significant gaps in the preparedness of institutions, lecturers and students. Most BAPTEP institutions were not prepared in terms of having e-learning platforms in place, whilst most lecturers lacked preparation and training in using the online platforms to deliver emergency remote teaching. The results also revealed that many students encountered challenges to engaging in e-learning owing to lack of internet connectivity, lack of a computer or laptop, and inadequate training in the use of their college’s online learning platform. Based on the findings, the paper makes recommendations for supporting the transition to online teaching of TVET courses in Botswana.

Keywords: Online teaching, e-learning, flexible learning, institutions, skills development, digital technology

1        Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced many education and training institutions around the globe to switch from traditional face-to-face classes to e-learning methods. On the one hand, the shift to e-learning strategies was intended to avoid the spread of the disease by effecting social distancing to a greater extent than is possible in traditional face-to-face settings (BQA 2020). On the other hand, e-learning was meant to ensure the continuity of learning during the closure of schools due to the pandemic. In many countries, this has meant that interactive learning could be offered using Learning Management Systems (LMS). At the same time, practical skills training through workplace-based learning (WBL) was often interrupted by company closures (World Bank 2020). In countries that adopted online learning strategies before the pandemic, it has been possible to support work-based learners through use of e-learning materials (Harriden 2017; World Bank 2020). Online learning has in some cases improved access and enrolment opportunities due to its affordability and flexibility compared to school-based learning (Gannon 2020). Yet, despite concerted efforts, the integration of online technologies in the delivery of TVET has not been realised in many countries and TVET institutions (UNESCO 2020). For many learners, the COVID-19 outbreak posed not only a health threat, but also delayed their completion of studies and transition to employment (WHO 2020).

In Botswana, private tertiary institutions stepped up efforts to ensure continuous learning in the TVET sector, complementing coordinated strategies at the national level to provide inclusive e-learning opportunities (BQA 2020). These initiatives were implemented in close cooperation with the national quality assurance body, the Botswana Qualifications Authority (BQA). Update bulletins from BQA indicate that some Education and Training Providers (ETPs) started online lessons using e-learning platforms to deliver programmes. Even in cases where e-learning was not approved at the time of launching training programmes, BQA regarded the initiative as a temporary mitigating measure to minimize disruptions to teaching and learning during the lockdown (BQA 2020). However, BQA informed ETPs that they would also be required to implement mitigating strategies when they reopened, to assist learners who had not benefited from online learning.

At the national level, BQA has provided operational guidelines for ETPs in response to the COVID-19 pandemic (see www.bqa.org.bw). These guidelines were meant to assist ETPs in developing learning strategies to mitigate disruptions to teaching and learning and to ensure that learners have access to proposed new modes of instruction for content delivery during the lockdown period. The guidelines stipulate that ETPs must:

• Consider their individual settings and capacity when determining alternative, appropriate, and effective learning programme delivery solutions.
• Try to ensure that learners have access to the required learning resources in consultation with key stakeholders (sponsors, parents, learners, and internet providers, amongst others).
• Provide training and support to teaching staff for the changed delivery mode.

This paper presents the findings of research concerning the preparedness of Botswana Association of Private Tertiary Education Providers (BAPTEP) to respond to the need for online teaching of TVET courses during the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. In Botswana, private TVET providers tend to be more responsive to changes in the labour market than public institutions – by, for example, regularly updating curricula to reflect new skills needs and establishing linkages with employers to improve the employability of graduates (Kishun 2015). This paper discusses the importance of online teaching methodologies, evaluates the readiness of BAPTEP institutions to teach TVET courses online, and highlights the challenges faced by institutions to effectively use the online teaching platforms that have been established. The paper concludes with recommendations for supporting BAPTEP institutions’ transition to e-learning – a mode of delivering TVET that is likely to become inevitable in the future.

2        Benefits and Challenges of Online Learning Approaches in TVET

Blended learning is defined as the use of new technologies to combine face-to-face teaching with e-learning or mobile learning (Lam & Ng 2020). The method involves multiple learning venues, pedagogical strategies and elements of instructions (Bates 2015). Burns (2011) posits that the advantage of blended learning is not only in the media used, but also in its variety in terms of content, pedagogy and learning approaches. Combining face-to-face and online learning approaches can produce greater positive impacts than instruction using just one of these delivery modes.

The reasons for and advantages of using online teaching and learning platforms in TVET are numerous (Carr et al. 2018; Kanwar 2019). For example, Hartel (2017) points out that adoption of e-learning is likely to improve the ICT competencies of TVET learners, thereby enabling them to operate more effectively in a future of work characterised by greater automation as a consequence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (UNESCO 2020). In addition, online teaching platforms allow for distance and flexible learning, catering to learners with different work schedules, circumstances, styles and needs (Kanwar 2019). Several studies have shown that online learning has the potential to improve access to education and increase institutional enrolments (Dhawan 2020; UNESCO 2020; World Bank 2020). For example, the Open Training and Education Network (OTEN) in Australia increased its enrolments from 35,813 in 2006 to 118,060 in 2014 by expanding the range of online VET qualifications that it offers to more than 250 (Harriden 2017). Online training can also reduce the amount of time spent in class-based training. In Canada, online teaching enabled Red River College in Manitoba to allocate 80-85% of time in its four-year apprenticeship programs to practical work-based learning, with 15-20% of time allocated for college-based learning (Little 2017). E-learning can also lower the cost of study and thereby build more inclusive societies (UN 2020). Finally, digital learning environments can enable teachers to work with experts outside of their local area to enhance the quality and relevance of their online training provision (Corbeil & Corbeil, 2015; Hartel 2017; UNESCO 2020).

Just as blended learning enables learning from more than one venue using more than one method, TVET can also be assessed from different venues, with schools responsible for theoretical assessments and workplaces responsible for practical assessments. Online teaching platforms offer an efficient way of transferring workplace-based assessment decisions to the main campus for merging with theoretical assessments (Lam & Ng 2020). These assessment decisions may be transmitted electronically to central institutions, which are then responsible for coordinating all points of assessment until certification of the learner, including by orienting learners in the use of online platforms from the onset (Hartel 2017). Apprentices and TVET learners undertaking WBL can continue to be supported by their institutions through e-learning materials (e.g., simulations and online skills manuals), while student diaries and logbooks can be logged online to build e-portfolios of evidence, which can then be shared on e-learning platforms to assist staff in reaching practical assessment decisions (Harriden 2017).

To fulfil its potential, blended learning requires plenty of resources that should complement each other in the teaching and learning cycle of TVET courses, both in schools and in the workplace (ILO 2020). Harriden (2017) points out that online learning involves a team of competent human resources, comprising full-time school-based teachers, part-time teachers, and offsite teachers. In situations where online teaching fully engages industry-based experts, resources to support teaching and learning, together with assessments, must be provided in the workplace. These resources should include internet services and the digital equipment necessary to allow industry experts to participate in content writing and assessments and to ensure the transfer of current industry experiences (Hartel 2017). Online teaching and learning also require infrastructural resources, including internet connectivity, computer/laptop, webcam, headset and printers (Bates 2015).

Successful transition to e-learning also depends on teacher, student and institutional readiness (UNESCO 2020; Modesto & Tau 2006). In terms of institutional preparedness, a study by Kibata (2013) of Kenya’s TVET institutions found that some institutions lacked the infrastructure and resources necessary to support e-learning. The same study also revealed a lack of computer literacy amongst students and staff. Several studies have identified lack of teacher preparedness to be one of the core challenges in shifting from traditional teaching methods to modern ICT-based teaching methods (UNESCO 2017; Carr et al. 2018). In some cases, teachers lack the preparation and training to deliver practical skills training online (Richardson 2012). In other cases, teachers are resistant to change and view preparation of online teaching materials and associated assessment as extra work (UNESCO 2020). High levels of motivation and a willingness to acquire new skills are required among teachers, assessors and learners for a smooth transition to online instruction (Carr et al. 2018). TVET institutions also need to be creative to develop and continuously improve their e-learning strategies within their available resources of manpower, facilities, and technological platforms (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2020).

3        Research Focus and Methodology

To assess how well private tertiary TVET institutions in Botswana were prepared for the shift to online teaching methodologies during the COVID-19 learning disruptions, a quantitative research design was used to gather data from a purposive sample of 119 participants (18 TVET lecturers and 101 students) from 4 BAPTEP colleges using online questionnaires containing both closed-ended and open-ended questions. Online questionnaires were used, both to observe COVID-19 protocols of social distancing and to reduce the time required for data collection. To ensure anonymity, participants were instructed not to write their names on the questionnaires and were assured that their responses would be kept confidential and used only for the purpose of this study.

Permission to conduct the research was sought from the Ministry of Tertiary Education Research Science and Technology, and the research permit was used to obtain permission from each college to distribute questionnaires to its lecturers and students. The researchers believed that the selected participants were those best placed to provide insights on the readiness of TVET colleges in implementing online teaching during COVID-19 disruptions of face-to-face lectures, since the participants were directly affected by the disruptions. Participating students and lecturers were also invited to share their experiences and provide recommendations for improving e-learning strategies.

Research questions were designed based on a literature review and were especially influenced by Criteria 10 and 14 of BQA’s Learning Programme Accreditation guidelines concerning the quality and appropriateness of institutions’ infrastructure and resources (BQA 2020). Criterion 10 focuses on how institutions anticipate delivering registered programmes, and it is at this stage where institutions highlight their intention to offer online teaching. To gain accreditation, qualifying institutions must prove they have the infrastructure in place to support the online delivery mode. Criterion 14 seeks to establish whether ETPs have the capability and capacity to sustain delivery of e-learning programmes. One of the clauses for the criterion stipulates that institutions must “ensure prescribed resources, inclusive of library facilities, internet access and online resources, are consistent with the provision typical of learning programmes leading to the qualification type to be offered” (ibid.).

The following questions guided the study:

• To what extent were BAPTEP institutions ready to offer online teaching and learning?
• To what extent are online teaching methodologies supported in BAPTEP institutions?
• Are online methods used to assess TVET courses?
• What challenges do BAPTEP institutions face in the use of online TVET delivery?
• Do institutions have an adequate infrastructure and resources to facilitate online teaching and learning of TVET courses?

In terms of data analysis, descriptive statistics were used to analyse the results of closed-ended questions, while responses to open-ended questions were thematically analysed.

4        Results and Discussion

4.1        BAPTEP Institutions’ Readiness to teach TVET courses online in Botswana

Student responses to the questionnaires suggest that most of BAPTEP institutions included in the study did not have online teaching and learning platforms for TVET courses in place prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (see Table 1). Only just over one-third (33.6%) of students surveyed agreed that their college had online teaching platforms for TVET courses, while only 26.7% agreed that an LMS had been in place. An even lower percentage (16.8%) agreed that students were trained in the use of the LMS, suggesting that even where LMS were in place, they were not being effectively utilised. These issues do not seem to stem predominantly from students’ unwillingness to engage with new technologies, since over 40% of students responding to the survey agreed that online platforms can be effectively used to teach TVET courses (46.5%) and that online methods are effective for delivering TVET teaching material (41.6%) as well as for assessing TVET courses (46.5%). Most student surveyed (37.7%) also agreed that the content of TVET courses delivered online tend to be of acceptable quality. Students’ responses indicate that a key reason why online methods were not more widely employed in delivering TVET courses in Botswana prior to the COVID-19 pandemic was a lack of adequate infrastructure and resources on the part of students (56.4%) and/or TVET institutions (40.6%).

Table 1: Students’ responses on College Level of Preparedness (n=101)

Similar trends emerge from lecturers’ responses to questions regarding their colleges’ preparedness for the shift to online teaching and learning (see Table 2). However, a higher percentage of lecturers said that their college had online teaching platforms (38.9%) and LMS (44.4%) in place prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, and one-half of lecturers surveyed said they had been trained in the use of the LMS. Nevertheless, they overwhelmingly agreed (77.8%) that students lacked training in the use of the LMS. As with the students responding to the survey, most lecturers agreed that online platforms can be effectively used to teach TVET courses (50%) and that online methods can be effective for delivering TVET teaching materials (44.4%) and assessing TVET courses (61.1%). However, they found fault with their colleges’ procedures for assuring the quality of online teaching content for TVET courses, as well as for monitoring the effectiveness of the use of LMS. As with the students, the lecturers surveyed agreed that their institution – and even more so their students – lack the required infrastructure and resources to facilitate online teaching and learning of TVET courses.

Table 2: Lecturers’ responses on College Level of Preparedness (n=18)

4.2        Lecturers’ and Students’ Readiness for Online Learning

In terms of what infrastructure and resources students lack, most students responding to the questionnaire cited lack of internet connectivity (70.3%) more so than lack of access to a computer or laptop – although over one-third (35.7%) of students surveyed said they do not have a computer or laptop to operate from home (see Table 3). In line with their earlier responses, most students surveyed (61.4%) said they had not often used their college’s LMS prior to lockdown and that, due to lack of internet connectivity and/or access to a computer or laptop, they experience difficulties accessing or using the LMS at home (48%). Most (around one-half) rely on the internet, rather than their college’s LMS, for e-learning.

Table 3: Students’ Readiness for Online Learning (n=101)

TVET lecturers, on the other hand, were found to be better-equipped to offer online teaching from home (see Table 4). 72.2% of lecturers surveyed said they own a computer or laptop, 61.1% said they have internet at home, and two-thirds said they have the skills required to interact with learners through the LMS. Nevertheless, a significant proportion – around one-quarter of lecturers surveyed – said they lack internet connectivity and/or a computer/laptop, which makes it difficult for them to access and use the LMS from home. Among those who could access their college’s LMS, the vast majority (55.6%) said they would recommend it to other institutions.

Table 4: Lecturers’ Readiness for Online Teaching (n=18)

4.3        Challenges faced by BAPTEP Colleges in teaching TVET courses online

In terms of the challenges faced by BAPTEP institutions in teaching TVET courses online, both students and lecturers responding to the questionnaire regarded the main issues as arising from the student side: lack of access to the internet and/or a computer or laptop, and lack of training in using their college’s LMS (see Figures 1 and 2). In addition, students are in many cases resistant to changing their mode of learning from traditional methods to online methods.

A further challenge concerns a lack of technical capacity to use online platforms to deliver practical skills training and support WBL. To understand the challenges faced by BAPTEP institutions in providing online practical skills training, students and staff participating in the study were given a list of six limitations and were asked to tick any number that applied to their specific situations. Figures 3 and 4 show their responses. Both the lecturers and students indicated that the e-learning platforms in their institutions lacked virtual workshops for students to receive hands-on practical skills training. Most LMS also did not allow for simulations, further inhibiting practical skills development and students’ ability to apply their theoretical learning. Lecturers’ lack of training and expertise in using the LMS was also illustrated by the fact that 44% of students and 50% of staff reported lack of interaction between lecturers and students on the online platforms. These issues have grave implications for the relevance of TVET courses and therefore also the employability of TVET graduates.

5        Conclusion and Recommendations

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the readiness of private tertiary institutions in Botswana to initiate online instruction of TVET programs during the COVID-19 pandemic learning disruptions. The questionnaire results suggest that most BAPTEP institutions were not ready for the transition to an online environment, despite some colleges having established online teaching and learning platforms before the pandemic. This was confirmed by responses from both students and lecturers, over 40% of whom stated that their college lacked the necessary infrastructure and resources to support e-learning in TVET. Furthermore, a large percentage of the TVET lecturers claimed not to have received training in the use of their institution’s LMS, which may have had an impact on their capacity to use the system to deliver hands-on practical training or even to interact with students online. Most TVET students surveyed also experienced challenges in engaging in online learning owing to lack of internet connectivity, lack of a computer or laptop, and/or lack of training in the use of their college’s LMS. These issues may explain why many of the students were reluctant to shift to online learning, despite appreciating that online platforms and methods can be effectively used to teach and assess TVET courses.

Based on these findings, the following recommendations are suggested:

• BAPTEP institutions should perform realistic assessments of their readiness to offer online courses and take steps to improve their ICT infrastructure and resources in line with BQA guidelines for e-learning provision.
• Both initial and in-service teacher education should be reformed to ensure that TVET lecturers receive training in the competences needed to work effectively in online and blended learning settings.
• Training on the use of online and blended learning methodologies should be offered to both institutional and workplace assessors and moderators.
• Institutions should seek partnerships/buy-in of industry and employers on the utilisation of online teaching and assessment methodologies for TVET learners in the workplace.
• Colleges should educate students on the use of their LMS and the benefits of online and blended learning.
• Institutions and internet providers should find ways of improving students’ access to the internet and computers/laptops.
• Further research is needed on effective models of online teaching and learning in TVET to inform practice.

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Citation:

Hondonga, J., Chinengundu, T. & Maphosa, P. K. (2021). Online Teaching of TVET Courses: An Analysis of Botswana Private Tertiary Education Providers Responsiveness to the Covid-19 Pandemic Learning Disruptions. In: TVET^@Asia, issue 16, 1-14. Online: http://tvet-online.asia/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Setiawan_issue16_TVET.pdf  (retrieved 31.12.2020).