The didactical approaches teachers deploy in delivering construction technology subjects at the school level in Zimbabwe are broadly meant to prepare learners for an easy transition into the labour market, further training and self-employment after school. This paper explored the vocational didactics teachers use to effectively deliver construction technology-related subjects such as Building and Wood Technology and Design at the school level. A systematic review of curriculum documents such as the school TVET policies, syllabi, evaluation reports and research publications was done. The systematic review included documents on vocational didactics for TVET schools elsewhere and those in Zimbabwe from 1980, when the country achieved independence, to the present day. This was done to understand the philosophical shifts in post-independence vocational didactics intended to improve equity and inclusion in the first ten years and later to solve growing unemployment for school leavers after 1990. Findings suggested that, in the first phase after independence, teachers adopted those didactical skills that emphasised the acquisition of craft skills needed in the production line and nurtured learners’ positive attitudes towards manual work and trades. The second phase, after 1990, focused on inclusive vocational skills development to solve socio-economic challenges. A stronger orientation emerged towards equipping learners with high-level technical, entrepreneurship and problem-solving skills for self-employment. Vocational didactics in construction technology must continue to evolve with sustainable skill set requirements for green jobs and workplaces so that school leavers can easily advance with higher-level training and transit into the labour market with relevant skills.

Keywords: vocational didactics, didactics, technical vocational education and training, construction technology, vocational skills

1        Background and Introduction

It is broadly acknowledged that the role of technical vocational education and training (TVET) is to prepare the workforce with sustainable technical skills for socio-economic roles and development (UNESCO 2017). Due to the global unemployment crisis, especially that of school leavers, the delivery of school TVET is increasingly putting more emphasis on equipping learners with relevant sustainable technical skills to fit the competency profiles of semi-skilled job entrants and on further training (Mbongwe 2018). TVET teachers are, therefore, required to use effective adaptive vocational didactical methodologies in order for students to enjoy and comprehend what they are learning. Vocational didactics refers to the art and science of teaching within vocational education, emphasizing the integration of vocational expertise and pedagogical techniques (Berglund & Lister 2010). Vocational didactics focuses on the learning activities involved in acquiring a trade, where an individual possessing knowledge (typically the teacher) engages with a learner (usually the student) to share knowledge and develop skills through structured instructional methods (Nore 2015; White et al. 2022). As explained by Berglund and Lister (2010), vocational didactics is best understood by means of a didactical triangle, shown in Figure 1. propounded by Hudson and Meyer (2011).

Figure 1: The didactical triangle adapted from Hudson and Meyer (2011, 8).

The didactical triangle represents the dynamic relationships between the teacher, student, and content (Lampiselkä et al. 2019). It emphasises that teaching and learning are interactive processes influenced by these three core components. The teacher plays a key role in guiding the learning process, facilitating understanding, and adapting content delivery to meet students’ needs. Meanwhile, the student actively engages with the material, constructing meaning and reflecting on their understanding. Students’ prior knowledge, motivation, and learning strategies shape how they interact with the teacher and the content. The content itself, which consists of the knowledge, skills, or subject matter being taught or learned, must be structured in a way that is accessible to the students, with its presentation mediated by the teacher (Berglund & Lister 2010). In line with the didactic triangle, vocational education teachers should, therefore, possess both the content and skills related to the trade they teach and didactical skills appropriate to TVET.

Several developed countries achieve low school-leaver unemployment rates by using appropriate vocational didactics on their students at the school level to equip them with the relevant technical skills for the labour market (Langford et al. 2015). However, Zimbabwe, a developing country, blames the rising school leaver unemployment on inappropriate vocational didactics which are not equipping learners with the sustainable skills to adapt to the changing skill sets for green jobs (Muzari et al. 2022). As a result, there have been several innovations and shifts in vocational didactics at the school level in Zimbabwe for construction technology-related subjects. The innovations include transiting from predominantly craft-based teaching approaches to incorporate design principles and mathematical, technical, research and digital skills in executing tasks.

Correspondingly, the training of TVET teachers in Zimbabwe has evolved to equip them with vocational didactic skills relevant to a more problem-solving and technology-driven approach to the delivery of lessons (MoPSE 2024). Hence, this paper explores the vocational didactics predominantly emphasised in delivering construction technology subjects for school TVET curricula in Zimbabwe, particularly those didactical approaches outlined in the Heritage Based Curriculum (HBC) documents of 2024-2030.

1.1       Objectives of this paper

The paper aims to determine factors that influence the vocational didactics used in delivering construction technology-related subjects at the school level in Zimbabwe. It also analyses the principles of vocational didactics used in the delivery of construction technology-related subjects. Lastly, it examines the efficacy of the vocational didactics employed in the teaching of construction technology-related subjects to achieve curricular aims.

1.2       Construction Technology Subjects

Construction technology-related subjects have different names in different countries to achieve their socio-economic goals. For instance, in South Africa, Civil Technology (CT) focuses on a combination of Construction, Civil Services, and Woodworking. CT covers both the practical skills and the application of the technological process. CT advocates for a sound technical base that integrates theory and practical competencies (Department of Basic Education 2014). The subjects aligned to construction technology in Zimbabwe schools’ curricula include Building Technology, and Design, and Wood Technology and Design. The subjects are examined at Form 4 and 6 at the secondary school level. At the school level, the subjects are meant to foster positive attitudes in students towards practical work and equip them with basic practical competencies and the use of tools needed for further training. The nomenclatures changed from Building Studies and Woodwork, respectively, to add “technology and design” in the names from 2015 as a shift from craft-based to technological vocational subjects (MoPSE 2024). The new curricula have adopted competency-based curricula principles to ensure that learners acquire and are tested on the knowledge and competencies required to pass (Goredema et al. 2024).

Other notable curricular changes to the school TVET curricula in Zimbabwe are a result of the Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training (CIET) of 1999 that recommended a secondary school curriculum with a strong vocational component to produce citizens who can apply their technical skills in real life (Coltart 2012; Dube et al. 2018). The changes are evident in the curricular aims and proposed didactical methods stated in the Building and Wood Technology and Design curricula documents. Curricular changes to school vocational education in Zimbabwe have now been rolled out in some national developmental agendas such as the Education 4.0, now 5.0, to implement the recommendations of the Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training (CIET) of 1999. The Education 5.0 doctrine is intended to modernise and industrialise the country through education and technology whilst addressing the country’s future workforce skills requirement. Therefore, it can be noted that, indeed, school TVET is used to prepare the learners, starting at the school level, with sustainable technical skills for socio-economic roles and development (UNESCO 2017).

To drive the curricular innovations, Zimbabwe introduced the Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC) to run from 2024-30, which underpins Education 5.0. This philosophy focuses on using local resources to promote innovation and industrialisation (Government of Zimbabwe 2022). The HBC 2024-30 document stipulates that learners must acquire specific competencies that include “knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and positive dispositions” (ibid). Therefore, teachers delivering construction technology-related subjects are expected to contextualise vocational didactics that promote such skills in an inclusive and meaningful way to enhance students’ experiences (Mukawu 2022).

1.3       Factors that influenced the vocational didactics used construction technology delivery

The vocational didactics recommended by the HBC in the delivery of construction technology shifted from craft-based strategies that emphasised acquiring mainly hands-on skills from 1980 (independence) to 1990 (Zvobgo 1994; Mupinga et al. 2005) to problem-solving and research-based strategies. The vocational didactics used soon after independence were meant to develop manual skills to improve equity and inclusion among people. After ten years of independence, the didactics were changed to solve the growing unemployment of school leavers (Zvobgo 1994). As a result, this led to the inclusion of design education, entrepreneurship skills development, digitalisation and the use of AutoCAD and automated machines, including CNCs, in the vocational education curriculum (Sithole & Hahlani 2022).

Often, TVET teachers want to combine theory learned in class with practice learned in workshops and laboratories to enhance the understanding of the concepts taught. On the one hand, this allows teachers to use those didactical approaches that bridge the gap from the abstract to stimulate interest and attachment between the learners and the materials used in the subject and the educational process (Dube & Xie 2018). On the other hand, connecting theory and practice in workshops will ensure contextual relevance and applicability to the real world for the students.

The curriculum documents for Building and Wood Technology and Design emphasise using suitable practical didactics that will engage learners with materials and yet develop other skills during practical sessions (MoPSE 2024). For example, learners gain the much-needed psychomotor skills, knowledge and understanding, practical skills and their application, decision-making, and judgement.

2        Methodology

This study systematically reviewed journal articles and curriculum documents on vocational didactics in construction technology education in Zimbabwe published between 1990 and 2024. Articles on vocational didactics in Zimbabwe were searched from Scopus, Google Scholar, JSTOR and government articles on vocational didactics. The Boolean search terms used were “Vocational Didactics” AND “TVET in Zimbabwe” This led to the identification of 70 articles published from 2010 to 2024. Of these, 20 articles could not be included in the study because they did not conform to the set criteria and thus were excluded from the analysis, leaving fifty articles for in-depth analysis. The included articles focused on vocational didactics, Education 5.0, Zimbabwe’s Heritage-Based Curriculum, and problems of teaching construction-related vocational subjects. In addition to journal articles, the study examined curriculum documents such as syllabi and government policies on school TVET. These were selected to evaluate official perspectives on vocational didactics in subjects like Building and Wood Technology Design. The empirical research from Zimbabwe shed light on didactical methods in construction technology education. The study also considered the principles of vocational didactic developed through the didactic triangle of Hudson and Meyer (2011), which shows the relationship of the content, learner, and resources. This multi-dimensional analysis established the conceptual framework for understanding the vocational didactics used in Zimbabwe. Other international publications on vocational didactics in construction technology were also considered in order to compare practices with those from other countries.

3        Discussion

3.1       Evolution and Structure of the Vocational Education System in Zimbabwe

The vocational education system in Zimbabwe has evolved through two significant phases: the pre-independence and post-independence periods, reflecting the nation’s changing socio-economic aspirations (Munetsi 1996). Before independence on April 18, 1980, vocational education was primarily controlled by missionaries, who implemented a religious-political curriculum designed to produce semi-skilled workers aligned with colonial labour market needs (Mandebvu 1994; Zvobgo 1994). From 1960, missionary efforts integrated European education systems with church-supported training centres, offering construction-related training in bricklaying and carpentry (Zvobgo 1994). The didactical approaches emphasized the acquisition of competencies needed in the labour market for production. The system facilitated the direct transition of school leavers to employment or apprenticeship programs (Munetsi 2016). However, the system of education was criticized for prioritising semi-skilled labour over fostering creativity and critical thinking (Zvobgo 1994).

Post-independence reforms introduced in 1980 aimed to align vocational education with the new national ideology, which embraced issues of equity, inclusivity, and development. The Education Act No. 5 of 1987, amended in 1991 and 2004, provided the legal framework for guiding primary and secondary education. This legislation emphasised free and compulsory primary education, decentralising educational management, expanding teacher training, and eliminating racial discrimination (Dube et al. 2018).

3.1.1      Integration of Vocational Education in Schools

Post-independence, Zimbabwe adopted a 9-4-2 education structure. Primary education spans nine years, divided into infant education (four years) and junior education (five years). At the end of Grade 7, students undergo assessments marking the end of primary education (Coltart, 2012). Technical education begins in the upper grades of primary school and continues through advanced-level secondary education. The didactical approaches used in the practical subjects at this level are meant to orient learners to the use of tools and various vocations without emphasising competencies.

In line with Policy Circular Number 77 of 2006, all secondary schools must offer at least one technical subject (Ministry of Education Sports Art and Culture 2006; Nherera 2018; Mhlanga et al. 2021). ZIMSEC assesses practical subjects offered in primary and secondary schools, while well-equipped secondary schools provide National Foundation Courses (NFC) managed by HEXCO, the Higher Education Examinations Council (Dube & Xie 2018; Mhlanga et al. 2021). The NFC is a pre-vocational qualification with more emphasis on skills training and the acquisition of competencies to the level of semi-skilled workers.

In 2023, Zimbabwe introduced technical high schools to develop industrial skills, emphasising innovation and entrepreneurship. These schools aim to produce job creators, rather than job seekers, with qualifications equivalent to Advanced Level certificates, enabling university progression (Moyo 2023).

3.1.2      Curriculum and Subject Offerings

Vocational education in Zimbabwe is rooted in Competency-Based Training (CBT) principles to ensure practical, industry-relevant skills. Foundational technical subjects related to the broad category of construction technology include Building Technology, Wood Technology, and Technical Graphics and Design. Building Technology is widely available, even in rural schools, due to its minimal equipment requirements. However, Wood Technology is limited to well-resourced schools due to high equipment costs and electricity constraints needed to drive the workshop or laboratory machinery (Ramaligela et al. 2019).

3.1.3      Initial Vocational Education and Training

Zimbabwe’s Initial Vocational Education and Training (I-VET) system operates through two pathways aligned with the Zimbabwe National Qualifications Framework (ZNQF). The first pathway, managed by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, involves practical tasks, coursework, and competency tests, with final exams conducted by ZIMSEC. The second pathway, overseen by the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, involves the Pre-Vocational Certificate (PVC) and National Foundation Certificate (NFC), administered by HEXCO (Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development 2018). The PVC offers introductory training for Grade Seven students, preparing them as operatives with essential technical skills. The NFC provides intermediate training over two years to Forms 3 and 4 students, equipping graduates to be semi-skilled to assist skilled workers. NFC graduates can progress to technical colleges or undergo trade testing to qualify as Class 4 skilled workers, enabling them to enter the labour market (Dube & Xie 2018).

3.1.4      Construction-Related Vocational Training

The HEXCO pathway includes construction-related subjects tailored to various roles in the industry. These include Brick and Block Laying, Carpentry and Joinery, Cabinet Making, Plumbing and Block Laying, and Decoration and Painting (Dube & Xie 2018).

3.2       Delivery of Vocational Training

Vocational training combines classroom instruction with practical experience. Schools and Vocational Training Centers (VTCs) offer workshops where learners develop hands-on skills, while industry placements provide real-world exposure through internships and attachments to construction firms.

3.3       Principles of Vocational Didactics Used in the Delivery of Construction Technology

The vocationalist perspective argues that the role of education is seen as the preparation of members of society for socio-economic roles through the acquisition of work-related skills and the right attitudes towards work (Mandebvu 1994). The chosen didactics must connect elements of teaching and learning, theory and practice, to make the education process coherent and meaningful (Dube & Xie 2018; Lampiselkä et al. 2019). Students leaving school, in addition to general education, should be trained in specific jobs so that they can proceed directly to employment or self-employment (Nherera 2014). This is also meant to link the education system and the job market, bringing relevance to the education system. The Zimbabwe Heritage Based Curriculum (HBC) 2024-30 document calls upon the TVET teacher to have both the subject technical and pedagogical skills to manage a class, create a conducive and inclusive environment for learners to acquire their technical competencies, values, and life skills (MoPSE 2024). The main competencies emphasised by the HBC include “cognitive competencies, technical, digital and socio-emotional skills”. The basic skills that are meant to drive the five major pillars of the Education 5.0 doctrine are teaching, research, community service, innovation, and industrialisation (Government of Zimbabwe 2016). The same skills are also supposed to permeate through the construction of technology-related subjects’ curricular documents, which are used daily, and the vocational didactics used by TVET teachers to help learners acquire the envisaged skills articulated in Education 5.0.

3.4       Vocational Didactical Teacher Skills

Vocational teachers must possess specific technical knowledge and skills, pedagogical abilities, classroom management expertise, and an understanding of philosophical, sociological, and psychological foundations to effectively teach and manage students (Diep and Hartman 2016). In Zimbabwe, TVET teachers must have the required professional pedagogical qualifications with vocational or technical expertise to deliver practical and technical education. Their vocational or technical qualifications typically include a National Diploma (Level 4) or Higher National Diploma in construction-related trades such as Building Technology, Civil Engineering, Carpentry, Electrical Engineering, Plumbing, or Road Construction. These qualifications focus on the technical competencies required to teach specialised subjects. Teachers may also hold trade certificates in areas like bricklaying, carpentry and joinery, plumbing or wood technology (Chikwature & Oyedele 2018).

In addition to technical skills, pedagogical training is essential for TVET teachers. This includes qualifications such as a Diploma in Education, a teaching diploma offered by the University of Zimbabwe or a Further Education Teaching Diploma (FETD), a teacher’s technical education diploma. These programmes equip teachers with effective teaching methodologies and classroom management strategies while emphasising vocational pedagogies to enhance lesson delivery during teacher training ((Chikwature & Oyedele 2018).

TVET teacher training in Zimbabwe also emphasises fostering professional competence and expertise. The Learning and Assessment Teachers’ Guide (MoPSE 2024), developed under the HBC (2024–2030) framework, outlines aims and objectives for guiding teachers and students. It aims to ensure pupils acquire life and work competencies while promoting an inclusive and supportive learning environment. Objectives include helping students acquire knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, applying competencies to solve real-world problems, fostering creativity and innovation, and monitoring learner progress in developing 21st-century skills.

TVET teacher training programmes provide a balance of teaching and technical skills, supported by practical industry experience (Mawonedzo et al. 2020). Teachers are trained in interactive methods such as hands-on activities, simulations, and project-based learning. Additionally, they gain entrepreneurial and digital skills, including proficiency in tools like CAD, ensuring they are well-prepared to meet contemporary educational and industry demands.

The Learning and Assessment Teachers’ Guide (MoPSE 2024), which has been developed to guide further the implementation of HBC (2024-2030), states some of the following aims and objectives for students and teachers, respectively:

Aims:

• ensure that pupils’ learning is geared towards acquiring competencies for life and work.
• guide teachers to provide an inclusive and conducive environment for learning and assessment.

Objectives:

• facilitate pupils’ learning of knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and positive dispositions.
• foster the application of acquired competencies and innovation to solve the pupils’ family, community and national problems.
• provide an inclusive and conducive environment for school-based continuous learning and school-based continuous assessment.
• monitor learner progress in relation to development of 21st century skills.
• assess competencies critical for problem-solving, creativity and innovation.
• evaluate pupils’ abilities to apply what they have learnt in real life skills.

TVET teacher training programmes in Zimbabwe provide student teachers with both teaching and technical skills. They gain strong knowledge in their fields, supported by real-world industry experience (Mawonedzo et al. 2020). Along with technical skills, they learn how to use interactive teaching methods like hands-on activities, simulations, and project-based learning. Student teachers also receive training in entrepreneurship and digital skills, such as using CAD (ibid).

3.5       Problem-solving teaching approaches

Problem-solving is one of the suggested learner-centred didactical approaches recommended to vocational teachers for construction technology-related subjects in Zimbabwe. This approach empowers the student by making them active in the learning process, engenders autonomy for the student, and helps them acquire lifelong skills in the process (Farrant 1980). In using the problem-solving teaching method, the teacher’s role is to guide the student and act as a resource person in the learning process. The learner’s creativity is given free rein as they try out their ideas (Nherera 1990).

The problem-solving method is meant to equip learners with the knowledge and skills intended to make them apply what they have learnt to solve real-life problems in their work environment and life. Through this approach, vocational education becomes more relevant. Construction technology always presents many unique and challenging situations that require learners to apply principles learned in different academic subjects to resolve the problems at hand. Therefore, in the teaching and learning process, the teacher must give learners challenging tasks to stimulate the application of scientific and technological knowledge while they solve their assigned tasks (MoPSE 2015).

Construction Technology teachers must apply those didactical approaches that enhance the achievement of the aims and objectives stated in the syllabus. Some of the aims stated in the Building and Technology and Design Syllabus (2015-2022) at the school level include (MoPSE 2015):

• to prepare learners for life and work in the economy and global world.
• to ensure learners acquire and demonstrate literacy and numeracy skills, including practical competencies necessary for life.
• to enhance the use of Information and Computer Technology (ICT) in teaching Building Technology and Design.

Similarly, Wood Technology and Design Syllabus (2015-2022) (MoPSE 2015) at the school level also include the following aims:

• design useful projects as solutions to problems using technologies
• apply scientific principles and technology to solve real-life problems
• make, care and maintain tools and equipment used in Wood Technology and Design

The new curriculum framework of 2015 to 2022 introduced a new dimension to the problem-based learning approach named Continuous Assessment Learner Activities (CALA). CALA is an approach that promotes research and experiential learning, encouraging learners to take an active role in the educational process (Gama 2022). From 2024, CALA has been replaced by School-Based Continuous Learning (SBCL) projects (MoPSE 2024). In line with the dictates of HBC, construction technology-related subjects have increasingly adopted Problem-Based Learning (PBL) methodologies to reflect the problem-solving nature of construction work. For instance, every year, completing students receive a design problem set by ZIMSEC where they are tasked with resolving construction-related challenges, which include sustainable building practices, cost estimation, materials selection, and simulating and requiring them to apply theoretical knowledge in practical contexts. Through this design process, students acquire various skills from technical, traversal and soft skills (MoPSE 2015).

Vocational teachers are, therefore, expected to have adequate technical and pedagogical skills to effectively deliver the vocations to meet the long-term goals of the syllabi and the curriculum framework (Goredema et al. 2024). The didactical approaches may differ depending on whether it is a theoretical or a practical lesson. Despite the different didactic approaches applied, teachers must ensure that learners develop socially, physically, emotionally and cognitively (MoPSE 2015).

3.6       Design teaching approaches

The current construction technology-related subjects have a strong component of school-based design projects which all students must do as part of their continuous and terminal examinations (MoPSE 2015). In the examination system, the design component makes up Paper 3 of the assessment process, and students are required to come up with designs that try to solve an existing problem at a relatively cheaper cost of materials, labour and time (Hondonga 2007). The projects are also meant to encourage students to engage hands-on with materials and tools in the design process, analyse, synthesise, and apply all knowledge learnt to solve a practical problem. According to Kimbell (1982), the basic principles of the design process foster creative thinking, problem-solving, and inventive skills as students are given the freedom to create something that interests them and is very much their own. The teacher’s main role in the design process is to act as a facilitator guiding the student through a systematic process (MoPSE 2024).

Vocational teachers are, therefore, expected to have good mentoring and coaching skills amongst other didactic skills. Since design education puts the student at the centre of the learning process, it adds value and relevance to what they learn and gain lifelong skills. The vocational teacher should allow the student to gain artistic skills, engineering, innovation, mathematics, technical skills, interdisciplinary skills, and critical thinking skills, amongst many other skills (Nherera 1990). Throughout the design cycle, the design caters for individual differences and promotes curiosity, persistence, imagination, uniqueness and self-confidence in learners. At the end of the process, the teacher must objectively apply assessment skills to determine how much the learner knows (knowledge), how efficiently they perform skills (competencies), and what convictions they hold after the entire process (values and attitudes) (Hondonga 2007). Therefore, a construction technology teacher must have a wide variety of pedagogical and assessment skills.

3.7       Inclusive Vocational Didactics in Construction Technology

Target 4.5 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) clearly states that there must be a deliberate effort to ensure equal access to vocational training for all people at all levels (ILO 2017). Despite the louder calls for inclusive actions to address all forms of exclusion and marginalisation, disparities and inequalities that undermine access and participation in vocational education, construction vocational teachers still face challenges to fully achieve this because of the nature of the vocation (Chinengundu & Hondonga 2024; Mukawu 2022). For example, Building Technology and Design at the school level involves practical lessons requiring students to do manual work that requires students to be agile and constantly move. Some practical lessons require learners to get onto some precarious positions on scaffolds, which may not be possible for some learners who may have impaired mobility (Mosalegae & Becker 2021). In Wood Technology and Design, some learners may have limited access to operate some of the machinery. This is although the Building and Wood and Technology and Design syllabi state that there must be equitable access to vocational training for all learners regardless of gender and different physical abilities (Mukawu 2022). Therefore, some learners become indirectly excluded due to the rigid curriculum designs and limited capacities to adapt to the various and often rigid pedagogical methods (Maggiolini & Molteni 2013; Molosiwa & Mpofu 2017).

Svendby (2020) found that, on the one hand, even in situations where schools may want to mitigate pedagogical exclusions, most schools cannot afford the specialised equipment. On the other hand, a study by Mosalegae & Becker (2021) found that the majority of TVET teachers may not have basic inclusive pedagogy skills in their teaching to suit the needs of learners with diverse needs. In another study conducted in Zimbabwe, Mukawu (2022) found that teachers appreciated the need for inclusion in Building Technology and Design as this learning area could potentially empower all learners, including those with disabilities, with survival economic skills.

4        Conclusions

The systematic review found that the changing skill set demands to be included in the construction vocations also influence the vocational didactics teachers deployed in the classroom. Further findings suggest that TVET trainee teachers are equipped with technical skills and trained in using interactive teaching methods like hands-on activities, simulations, and project-based learning. Student teachers also receive training in entrepreneurship and digital skills to deliver lessons using digital technologies. It has been established that TVET teacher training programmes must be continuously revised to meet the skill dynamics required by learners who have to fit into a fast-changing labour market. Problem-solving and design teaching approaches are heavily emphasised in construction technology subjects at the school level in Zimbabwe. Several other teaching approaches are also recommended to ensure that students acquire technical, traversal and soft skills. Design and problem-solving approaches are meant to foster creative thinking and inventive skills as students are free to create novel and original ideas. The didactic approaches emphasised in the continuous assessment projects are intended to encourage students to engage hands-on with materials and tools in the design process. Students learn to critically analyse situations and their work, synthesise, and apply all knowledge learnt to solve a practical task. Despite the different didactic approaches applied, teachers must ensure that learners develop socially, physically, emotionally and cognitively. Therefore, a construction technology teacher must have a wide variety of pedagogical skills for learners to acquire lifelong skills. It can be noted that due to rigid pedagogical methods, some learners become indirectly excluded from taking up construction technology-related subjects at the school level. The reviewed literature suggests that the majority of TVET teachers in Zimbabwe may not have basic inclusive pedagogic skills to suit the needs of learners with diverse needs.

5        Recommendations

Vocational teachers need to keep abreast of sustainable technological advancements in modern green construction workplaces to enhance the relevance of their didactical approaches. The greening of construction technology teachers’ didactic and pedagogical skills must improve the acquisition of the green skill sets of construction industry practices and curricula. Teachers must have the tools to evaluate their delivery skills honestly so that staff development interventions can be put in place to avoid skills transfer gaps. Regular curricular reviews for pre-service and in-service TVET teacher training programmes must be undertaken with industry advisory bodies so that teacher didactic competencies remain current in this era of sustainable development. There is a need to have routine staff development activities to equip TVET teachers with modern and emerging improvements to didactic approaches needed for green skills and jobs so that teacher skills do not become obsolete. To improve the inclusive participation of all learners with diverse needs, there is a need to include modules on inclusive pedagogics for trainee teachers to develop their capacity to handle learners with diverse needs. Vocational teachers must also be empowered to deliver the subjects using blended learning approaches to build capacity in learners to use computer applications in design and future skills needed in the modern construction workplace, which will involve several software.

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Abstract

This study collects data on inclusive education practices within Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions across Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand. Utilising a systematic review methodology, the research examines international policies, government reports, and peer-reviewed journal articles relevant to inclusive education in the TVET sector. The objective is to present an overview of current practices, policies, and guidelines, assess the provision of inclusive facilities and amenities in these institutions, and identify the challenges encountered. Despite inclusive education policies in the three countries, the TVET sector continues to inadequately address the diverse inclusive needs of students and other stakeholders. TVET facilities in these nations remain systemically segregated, thereby excluding individuals with special needs. The literature indicates that effective inclusive practices depend more on the institutional implementation of inclusive processes than students’ abilities. The findings reveal gaps in both policy and practice, highlighting that many TVET teachers lack training in inclusive education pedagogies. Furthermore, there are inadequate funding mechanisms to modernise existing infrastructure, acquire specialised equipment for laboratory work, and support inclusive pedagogies and assessments. Leaders within TVET institutions must recognise the exclusionary barriers faced by individuals and develop solutions to overcome these obstacles.

Keywords: Disability, inclusive education, inclusive practices, special education, Botswana, South Africa, Thailand

1        Background and Introduction

Inclusive education practice defines the extent and techniques whereby normal school systems attempt to provide education to differently-abled children in a natural classroom setting (UNESCO 2012). Furthermore, UNESCO (2020) extended the understanding of inclusive education practices to include all actions taken to address all forms of exclusion and marginalisation, disparities, and inequalities that undermine access and participation in learning outcomes. Sharma (2015) asserts that inclusive education promotes equitable access to the same education standards for children from different socio-economic backgrounds to reach their full potential despite all other variables. TVET is frequently viewed as an inclusive educational route for students excluded from mainstream upper-secondary education (Jayaram et al. 2017). However, Maggiolini and Molteni (2013) argue that inclusive practices remain a major challenge for several institutions of higher learning. According to Alla-Mensah et al. (2021), TVET can also perpetuate the exclusion of marginalised groups due to its curricular designs and limited capacities to accommodate students’ diverse and often complex needs. Implementing measures to integrate individuals with disabilities into the TVET system is crucial, and each country should consider achieving an inclusive TVET system (International Labour Office, Gender, Equality and Diversity 2013). Critically comparing international trends is an essential standard practice in inclusive education practices in TVET to adopt best practices (DHET 2018; Schröder & Dehnbostel 2017). Hence, this paper systematically reviewed published literature on the inclusive education practices in TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa and Thailand against international standards of inclusive practices espoused by UNESCO.

Generally, UNESCO (2012) outlined some fundamental inclusive education practices that include:

• coming up with legal frameworks and normative instruments to promote inclusion in education systems,
• enforcing international obligations to the right to education for all people, 
• increased advocacy for inclusive practices in educational institutions,
• addressing all forms of inequalities and exclusion in education systems, 
• adopting inclusive pedagogical methodologies in teaching, learning, and assessment, 
• ensuring that all infrastructure and the learning environment are appropriate, accessible, and inclusive to all people even those with disabilities.

Guaranteeing appropriate inclusive educational opportunities for learners with disabilities and the socially excluded remains a significant challenge that TVET learning institutions face. Generally, there is limited literature on inclusive practices in TVET education in particular, as compared to general education, hence the need for this paper. There is a need for TVET inclusive education policies and a strong commitment by all stakeholders to implement such policies. As such, Faas, Smith, and Darmody (2018) assert that implementing inclusive practices in TVET institutions requires capable and compassionate leaders who are committed advocates of inclusivity within educational establishments. Those in leadership are supposed to demonstrate a commitment to creating inclusive school environments that accommodate students from diverse upbringings. Such practices should recognise and acknowledge differences between learners, reflecting variations in the school curriculum and learning materials, and further developing inclusive cultural awareness in teaching personnel and empowering learners (UNESCO 2020). However, the varying inclusive practices in TVET institutions in the three countries have been shaped by cultural and social beliefs, compounded by political and economic interventions. Further challenges of inclusive pedagogical practices have been brought about by the level of responses and adoption of blended teaching and learning methodologies during the COVID-19 era.

While the COVID-19 pandemic presented numerous opportunities for adopting new pedagogical approaches utilising digital technologies and online interactions, the pandemic’s effects on inclusive practices for socially marginalised individuals warrant further investigation (Hondonga et al. 2021). TVET institutions are challenged to offer a great deal of flexibility by investing in specialised infrastructure and qualified personnel to ensure that all exclusionary impediments are removed in the use of blended learning. Institutions also require novel, yet adaptable, inclusive, and sustainable teaching and assessment methods. However, institutions must digitise in a manner that does not compromise the acquisition of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) skills by TVET learners for them to fit well in modern workplaces (Pirzada & Gulzar 2023). 

Helmy and Fairman (2023) highlight the importance of TVET teachers acknowledging and tackling the exclusionary obstacles encountered by students engaging in online learning. All interventions must, however, keep emphasising uncompromised efficient skills development, which can still be realised through using virtual reality and augmented reality in simulated and remote laboratory settings. Therefore, TVET teachers are key to promoting inclusive practices in the institutions by creating an enabling environment to ensure that all learners can access TVET education despite any form of disability (Pirzada et al. 2024). Inclusive practices also embrace gender inclusion to allow males and females to have full access to all forms of education without discrimination (Sharma 2015). Modern TVET training should not make some trades and vocations a preserve for one gender domination to break the stereotypes. In Botswana and South Africa, gender enrolment disparities are still evident across most TVET programmes, and this is rooted in the past and present social beliefs and political influences (Mosalagae 2016; Nkambule & Ngubane 2023).

Even with the current TVET training policies and institutional assistance for students with impairments, each student still needs reasonable accommodation. According to the ILO (2016), reasonable accommodation is the customised modification of the surroundings to satisfy the special requirements of people with disabilities. Therefore, it is crucial to cultivate leadership abilities that allow TVET institutional leaders to efficiently structure their institutions using stakeholders’ combined professional expertise, knowledge, and experiences (DiPaola et al. 2004).

1.1       Research Objectives

The primary objectives of this paper are to:

1. Determine whether policies are in place to facilitate the implementation of inclusive practices in TVET institutions in the three countries.
2. Investigate the prevalence of inclusive practices in TVET institutions.
3. Identify the challenges faced by the three countries in implementing inclusive practices in TVET institutions and propose recommendations for improvement.

This article aims to promote the improvement of inclusive practices in TVET programme delivery and advance changes that provide all prospective students, including those with disabilities, better access to learning settings and infrastructure. The goal of the comparative analysis between Botswana, South Africa and Thailand is to pinpoint current procedures, areas for improvement, and best practices that the three nations may adopt. In the end, increased inclusion for people with special needs in TVET professions and improved socio-economic fairness in society would result from emphasising role clarity for all TVET practitioners and leaders about inclusive education methods. Additionally, this would guarantee that students, regardless of their disability, have equitable access to educational resources and services customised to meet their requirements.

The paper’s findings and suggestions will help educate policymakers about the issues at hand and offer potential solutions to improve inclusive practices in TVET programmes. This article will enhance the limited research on inclusive practices and the experiences of students with disabilities at TVET institutions in poor nations.

1.2       Theoretical framework

The study was grounded in social model theory, which emerged from disability activists’ work during the 1970s and 80s. This model of disability arose as a response to the constraints associated with the medical model of disability (D’Alessio 2011, 44). The social model theory posits that by designing societies and structures accessible for individuals with disabilities, such individuals would not encounter limitations in their participation within the broader community (Retief & Letšosa 2018). Similarly, according to the social model, disability is perceived to stem from societal mental attitudes and physical infrastructures, rather than being solely due to an individual’s medical condition (Goering 2015). Instead, it is societal inadequacy to furnish suitable services and adequately address the needs of disabled individuals within societal structures such as TVET institutions (Goering 2015). In the realm of TVET institutions, the social model of disability focuses on establishing inclusive environments that eliminate obstacles to learning and engagement for all students, including the socially marginalised. The model acknowledges that inclusive practices encompass not only physical accessibility but also curriculum flexibility, teaching methods, and support services that accommodate diverse needs (Mosia & Phasha 2017). This systematic review focuses on inclusive policies and systemic challenges that impede the complete integration of students with disabilities in TVET institutions.

1.3       Inclusive Education Policies 

According to UNICEF (2023), International Organisations such as the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations (UN) have a track record of promoting and advocating for all people’s right to a decent education. According to ILO (2017), the same fundamental rights to education for all children are inscribed in both the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). The need for quality education for all children is consistent with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4.5, which supports equitable access to vocational training for marginalised groups, such as people with disabilities, at all levels of society (UNESCO 2020).

On the other hand, The International Labour Organisation (ILO) policy paper on disability inclusion further weighs in that all people working in TVET institutions must comprehend the practical requirements for effective disability inclusion, considering the diverse types of disabilities and educational backgrounds among individuals (ILO 2012; Matafora 2019). Furthermore, inclusive education plays a pertinent role in advancing SDGs 4 and 8 which pertain to education and employment, respectively (Abbott et al. 2017). Despite the emphasis placed on TVET in national and international policies, there appear to be limited specific strategic initiatives addressing the inclusion of marginalised groups in this sector (African Union 2018).

Research and literature highlight a diverse array of both negative and positive experiences encountered by students and staff with disabilities in post-school education and training (PSET) on a global scale (Mosalagae 2021; Nkambule & Ngubane 2023). International adherence to legislative and policy requirements, coupled with recognition of business cases for addressing disability equity issues, has facilitated progress in numerous countries. Legislation and policies play a pivotal role at the national level in advocating for the rights of individuals with disabilities. Institutions worldwide are striving to transition towards more inclusive policies and practices, moving away from remedial interventions (Vo 2022). Inclusion entails facilitating comprehensive and fair participation in and advancement through the PSET system for all prospective and current students and staff.

Different countries have different approaches and policies to inclusive practices in TVET institutions. In Australia, the Australian Apprenticeships Incentives Programme offers various forms of assistance to support apprentices with disabilities. This includes the Disabled Australian Apprentice Wage Support, which provides payments to employers and funds for tutorial, interpreter, and mentor services for apprentices (ILO 2011). In Malaysia, the OKU Talent Enhancement Programme (OTEP Scheme) under the National Human Resource Development Fund allows employers full financial assistance to send employees with disabilities to designated training programmes. In India, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, Art 19, outlines guidelines on providing loans to support people with disabilities in TVET in formal and informal training institutions. In Sri Lanka, the Employers’ Network on Disability, established in 2000 by the Employers’ Federation of Ceylon (EFC), seeks to enhance training and employment opportunities for individuals with disabilities in the Sri Lankan business sector (ILO 2011). However, other countries offer targeted admissions and training opportunities in TVET institutions to individuals with disabilities and those with special needs.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) and the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities do not provide a specific definition of disability. Instead, they acknowledge disability as a dynamic concept shaped by societal factors, particularly when individuals with disabilities are prevented from fully participating in all aspects of life and when society does not adequately uphold their rights and address their needs. Other related definitions of disability share certain common elements even if they emphasise or word them differently like: 

• the presence of impairment,
• internal and external limitations or barriers which hinder full and equal participation,
• focus on the abilities of the person with a disability,
• loss or lack of access to opportunities owing to environmental barriers and/or negative perceptions and attitudes of society.

In countries like South Africa, Botswana, and Bangladesh, quotas or equity targets are in place to create opportunities for learners with disabilities to enrol in TVET institutions. For instance, in Bangladesh, the Department of Technical Education (DTE) initiated a pilot project to implement the recommendations of the National Strategy for mainstreaming disability TVET institutes (Aziz 2023; ILO 2016). This project included a five percent admission quota for individuals with disabilities and incorporated disability inclusion in the annual plan, budget, and procurement process. Additionally, it integrated disability considerations into the performance appraisal and monitoring system (Aziz 2023). Botswana public institutions’ admissions policies also have a reservation of 5% for the special educational needs (SEN) and, orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in their programmes (Mosalagae 2016; Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). Arguments are that the quota and equity targets avoid unnecessary competition and bias for enrolments in TVET institutions that may be tilted towards people without disability.

2 Methodology

To ensure transparency in the research process, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews. A systematic PRISMA criterion was used to include and exclude relevant literature for the study since it provides a structured approach to conducting systematic reviews (Moher et al. 2009). 

We examined databases known for granting access to interdisciplinary research studies, such as ERIC, PsycINFO, PubMed, and others, to do an exhaustive search for pertinent literature on inclusive education methods at TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand. The main objectives of this study were considered when formulating the search terms. The search was limited to papers published within the last 20 years to guarantee relevance to modern inclusive education approaches. Only studies published in English were included. The search strings used are:

• (“inclusive education” OR ‘inclusive practices”) AND (“TVET” OR “Technical and Vocational Education and Training” AND “Botswana”,
• (“inclusive curriculum” OR “accessibility” OR “accommodations”) AND (“vocational schools” OR “technical colleges”) AND “South Africa”,
• (“disability inclusion” OR “special educational needs”) AND (“vocational education” OR “skills training”) AND “Thailand”.

We used the same strings, only changing the country name to refine our search for a particular country. These search strings combine terms related to inclusive education, disability, and specific country names to retrieve relevant literature from academic databases and journals.

The study design included peer-reviewed journal articles, policy documents, and reports from reputable authoritative organisations such as the African Union, International Labour Organisation (ILO), OECD and UNESCO. We also considered studies conducted in or specifically addressing inclusive practices in TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa or Thailand. The review included learners with diverse needs, such as those with disabilities and special needs within TVET settings. The studies were supposed to examine inclusive practices, policies, interventions and challenges in TVET institutions. Non-peer-reviewed literature such as editorials, conference abstracts and dissertations were excluded. Studies conducted outside Botswana, South Africa, or Thailand that were not relevant to the inclusive practices in these countries were excluded. We also excluded studies focusing exclusively on general education settings or other educational levels beyond TVET institutions. Both authors extracted data for Thailand, while the first author completed South Africa and the second author did Botswana. The authors consulted and checked the results periodically and independently to avoid bias. Figure 1 illustrates the flowchart of the article selection process.

*B=Botswana, SA=South Africa, TH=Thailand

Figure 1: Article Selection Process Flowchart

3        Findings

3.1       Inclusive Education Policies in Botswana

The Botswana government has demonstrated its commitment to providing inclusive education, including TVET, to learners with disabilities by signing various international agreements. For example, Botswana endorsed the Jomtien Declaration (UNESCO 1990) and signed the Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO 2000) to promise to provide education to all citizens, particularly the most vulnerable and underprivileged. This commitment is further reflected in a revised Act of 2024 on Persons with Disabilities (Government of Botswana 2024). The act, amongst other tasks, mandates the establishment of the Disability Coordination Office and the National Disability Council to promote equal access to facilities and education for all people in Botswana. While the initial education policy of Botswana in 1977 did not explicitly address special needs or TVET, it established the principle of Kagisano to govern all educational advancements. Kagisano emphasised the promotion of social harmony through democratic principles and the concept of “botho”, which embodies interdependence and humanity among individuals (Government of Botswana 1977). The Revised National Policy for Education (RNPE) of 1994 came up with clear recognition and major policy guidelines for providing quality and equitable education to all children at all levels, especially the most vulnerable and disadvantaged (Government of Botswana 1994). Two significant recommendations outlined in the policy were the assignment of a senior teacher in each school to oversee the education of handicapped children and the incorporation of special needs education components into the pre-service or in-service training of all teachers (ibid). Other refinements and improvements to the commitments are implemented through the National Development Plan (NDP).

Specifically to TVET, The National Policy on Vocational Education and Training (Government of Botswana 1997) acknowledged that disadvantaged groups, such as disabled students and women, should be given special attention and that special training programmes may be required. More focus was placed on the recognition of special educational needs (SEN) and orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in institutional enrolment strategies to improve access and equity to TVET training in several institutions in the country (Dart 2007). A comprehensive policy regarding inclusive education was enacted in 2013, and there was a gradual growth of enrolled students in general education. However, the exact statistics could not be ascertained due to inaccuracies with them (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay 2015). Further gaps in the number of SEN/OVC students enrolled in TVET programmes started to grow and were compounded by a negligible number of studies on inclusivity in TVET programmes in Botswana.

3.1.1      Achievements and Challenges

The positive policy shifts in Botswana towards implementing international agreements on improved access to quality education and training are well documented. Although the number of SEN/OVC learners has increased in general education, the number of the same category of learners enrolled in TVET programmes and institutions has remained generally low (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay 2015). 

Despite the government’s good policies and goodwill, meeting the requirements of inclusive practices in TVET institutions in Botswana has been a daunting task. Molosiwa and Mpofu (2017) found that several students face exclusionary practices rather than inclusion. For example, deficiencies persist in enrolment processes, teaching and learning, and the provision of inclusive infrastructure in school settings (Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). Different approaches have been pursued, creating a dilemma regarding the best way forward. On the one hand, some TVET colleges have isolated students with disabilities from their “normal” counterparts. The argument for this is to allow the directed provision of resources and infrastructure to satisfy the educational demands of those learners (Mangope & Mukhopadhyay 2015). This approach is, however, criticized in that learners with disabilities are stigmatised and marginalised with connotations of epistemological exclusion (Norwich 2010; Norwich 2014; Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). Students with disabilities will be perceived to be social misfits who cannot mix with other students and lack social skills, which may affect them later when seeking employment opportunities. 

On the other hand, inclusive education theories have influenced a mixed-classes approach for both disabled and non-disabled students. This approach advocates for equal and inclusive treatment of students where none feels different from the other in the general provision of pedagogical resources except for individualised support (Mosalagae & Bekker 2021). This approach allows all students in the institution to socially integrate into the learning, social and general institutional environments and befits the social model of disability (Elliott et al. 2015, 2). Whilst all approaches are pursued, challenges remain in providing inclusive practices, especially in TVET institutions requiring specialised equipment (Svendby 2020). The majority of TVET teachers are unaware of students’ disabilities and the use of inclusive pedagogies in their teaching. This lack of understanding means students may not receive adequate support to achieve their full academic potential. At the most, it implies that students with disabilities may be denied full participation in the learning process (ibid). However, Mosalagae (2021) agrees that there is little published material on inclusive practices in Botswana’s TVET institutions and the true voices and experiences of learners with disabilities in such institutions. 

Mosalegae and Bekker (2021) conducted a study on inclusion in TVET colleges in Botswana. Findings suggested that students had a positive perception of good inclusionary practices both in class and college environments. The study further indicated that learners felt that they benefitted from socially inclusive mixed classes and collaborative teaching practices between their teachers and special educators. Some of the inclusive practices pointed out include pedagogical and social inclusion, the creation of clear, sustainable learning opportunities for all, empowerment, forming teamwork, forming friendships, the provision of adequate and suitable resources, and appropriate inclusive infrastructure and learning environments. 

3.2       Inclusive Education Policies in South Africa

Presently, the oversight of fifty public TVET colleges in South Africa falls under the responsibility of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). With an inclusive educational approach, the South African school system aims to include all students, especially those with impairments. The implementation of disability rights in South Africa must be contextualised within its distinct political, social and legislative framework. Several TVET colleges enrol a diverse range of students for certification programs, some of whom have learning disabilities that are disruptive in the classroom. There have been no notable advancements in implementing inclusive education policy since the formal publication of “Education White Paper 6” (DoE 2001; Walton 2011; Chataika et al. 2012). The White Paper 6 (2001) emphasised the government’s disapproval of the exclusion of disabled individuals from mainstream society and pursues to address this by including disabled learners with able-bodied peers with the required support, in addition to facilitating a deeper comprehension of contextual challenges to aid in the identification of suitable solutions and community engagement.

The DHET in South Africa has been dedicated to establishing an inclusive PSET sector, particularly emphasising inclusive education in TVET colleges (Kungwane & Korf-Taljaard 2023). In its advocacy for assistance to students with disabilities within the higher education system, the Education White Paper on Post-School Education (DHET 2013) notably emphasises the creation of an inclusive higher education milieu (DHET 2013). Acknowledging the persistent challenges of bias and obstacles in accessing curricula, student financing, and support services encountered by students with disabilities, the document identifies deficiencies in implementing inclusive policies (DHET 2013; Alinea 2022).

By integrating individuals with impairments into regular programs, the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) has significantly improved the educational and training options for impaired individuals. Despite significant progress, the PSET system’s handling of disability rights is still disjointed and disconnected from the institutional change and diversity initiatives now in place. The Strategic Policy Framework on Disability for the Post-School Education and Training System is essential for directing enhancements in the accessibility to and achievement within post-school education and training, encompassing private institutions, for individuals with disabilities (Chiwandire 2019; DHET 2018). The Strategic Policy Framework on Disability delineates comprehensive guidelines encompassing all institutions and programmes within the PSET system, including the DHET and its regional offices, public and private educational institutions such as universities, TVET and CET colleges, and skills providers, agencies, and other entities. 

To ensure change that benefits South Africans with disabilities and other marginalised groups, the White Paper on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities lays out the strategic approach and anchors for realising the rights of individuals with disabilities (DoSD 2015; Nkambule & Ngubane 2023). As a policy, it establishes guidelines for what constitutes acceptable behaviour and encourages the creation of inclusive environments that offer individuals with disabilities the same benefits and opportunities as others.

The objective of the social model of disability is to ensure equitable participation of individuals with impairments across all facets of society. The model serves as the cornerstone for the options available to students with disabilities to assist them in overcoming the challenges that exist on TVET campuses. Because the majority of South African educational institutions were not intentionally constructed with accessibility for students with impairments in mind, there are inherent hurdles (Tugli et al. 2017). In addition, students with disabilities must consider how their limitations will affect their ability to participate in educational programmes with reasonable accommodation. 

Utilising a qualitative critical discourse analysis methodology to scrutinise the policy text concerning the funding of individuals with learning disabilities within the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS), Nkambule and Ngubane (2023) shed light on the challenges faced by students with learning disabilities. Their investigation underscores the necessity for a funding policy that recognises the diverse nature of disability. Despite the provisions within the Norms and Standards for Funding TVET colleges that allow for supplementary funding for students with disabilities (DHET 2018), there remains a lack of dedicated funding to enhance the accessibility of buildings at TVET colleges.

Delubom, Marongwe, and Buka (2020) investigated the obstacles encountered by the management of TVET colleges in implementing inclusive education, particularly concerning students with disabilities. The study revealed persistent barriers to accessibility and support for students with disabilities within TVET colleges. The research also identified various challenges faced by the college management, including insufficient infrastructure, funding constraints, inadequate lecturer training, and a shortage of staff to assist students with disabilities (Walton 2011). As a solution, it was suggested that TVET colleges establish Disability Service Units and either hire trained lecturers or provide training for existing lecturers to better support disabled students in their learning process. Munyaradzi, Arko-Achemfuor, and Quan-Baffour (2023) echoed these findings, affirming that students with disabilities encounter difficulties that disrupt their academic progression. Additionally, they observed that the existing student support mechanisms within the TVET sector inadequately address the diverse needs of students with disabilities.

According to Munyaradzi et al. (2023), the fundamental tenets of inclusive education in South Africa include respect for uniqueness and diversity in culture and democratic values like equality and human rights. Scholarly research suggests that several social developments, such as modifications to educational policy and contextual dynamics, have impeded the progress of inclusive education. This is particularly evident in how TVET colleges handle diversity (Kungwane & Korf-Taljaard 2023; Walton 2011). As a result, suggestions have been made to create Disability Service Units and collaborate with businesses to improve inclusion.

3.3        Inclusive Education Policies in Thailand

In Thailand, inclusive education takes the form of full-time combined study, which is comparable to the mainstream setup. Students with disabilities are mentioned in several significant Thai government education papers. The majority of the documents, however, do not specify the location of specialised schools for children with impairments. According to Vibulpatanavong (2017), most public institutions in Thailand that admit students with disabilities are referred to as integration schools rather than inclusive schools. How integration schools serve students with disabilities differs.

People with disabilities in Thailand are entitled to education as specified in the national education legislation or national education plan, which suits their physical and mental condition in specialised educational institutions, general education institutions, alternative education, or non-formal education, according to the Persons with Disabilities Empowerment Act, B.E. 2550 (Thai Government 2007). The agencies above are responsible for furnishing disabled individuals with appropriate and essential facilities, media, services, and other educational aids (Janyam 2022). The statute protects the educational rights of people with impairments. Nonetheless, special education or general education institutions may instruct those with disabilities. Two types of education streams are available to people with disabilities: formal and non-formal. The Education for Persons with Disabilities Act, B.E. 2551, was approved by the Thai Government in 2008. According to the statute, people with disabilities are entitled to the following kinds of education: 

• Provision of free education, including educational technologies, accommodations, media, services, and support from birth or the onset of a disability.
• The abilities, interests, and needs of the disabled individual should be considered when selecting educational services, institutions, systems, and types.
• Delivery of quality education that meets high-quality assurance standards, with curriculum, instruction, and assessment tailored to individual needs. 

The Education for Persons with Disabilities Act does not prioritise mainstream education over special education for individuals with disabilities. However, the statute affirms, for the first time, the right of individuals with disabilities to choose their educational providers or systems. This provision represents a significant advancement, empowering people with disabilities to determine the type of education they wish to pursue (Kusuma 2021). 

In 2017, the Thai government introduced the National Education Plan for 2017–2036 (Thai Ministry of Education 2017). This plan includes the implementation of an inclusive education policy. However, as Vibulpatanavong (2017) notes, the plan lacks enforceability. Despite this, it sets forth objectives to improve education for individuals with disabilities. The plan asserts that children with disabilities, if able, have the right to be educated alongside their peers in regular classes. This suggests that some students with disabilities may not be able to attend classes with regular students. 

Although the laws and policies in Thailand reflect that the Thai government is committed to improving education for persons with disabilities, much further progress is needed (Vibulpatanavong 2017). For example, despite the law providing free education for persons with disabilities at all educational levels, including the tertiary level, the full implementation of the envisaged prospects has not been realised.

The Ministry of Education states that there are nine different categories of disabilities in Thailand: autism, learning disabilities, language and communication disorders, behavioural disorders, physical disabilities and health impairments, intellectual disabilities, hearing impairments, visual impairments, and multiple disabilities (Hill & Sukbunpant 2013). The Education for Persons with Disabilities Act protects those with one of the nine disability categories. However, classification can also result in stereotyping and labelling. Therefore, even though classification could be a technique that many teachers are unfamiliar with, it is crucial to try to eliminate categorisation and support all children who need protection without categorisation (Jayaram 2017; UNESCO 2009).

According to Kosuwan, Viriyangkura, and Swerdlik (2014), there are instances in which disabled students in Thailand’s conventional classrooms may reflect physical inclusion and not an education that is suitable for them. Furthermore, it is rare in Thailand for conventional classrooms and TVET institutions to accommodate students with special needs through adaptations and adjustments (Kosuwan et al. 2014). Providing curricular and instructional modification training to teachers could improve the inclusion of all students in regular classes. 

The Thai Ministry of Labour has been offering training classes to underprivileged students as part of a special plan since 2020 to assist students who might have trouble paying for their tuition. The Equitable Education Fund (EEF), created by the Equitable Education Act of 2018, provides grants to underprivileged students, including those with disabilities, so they can enrol in TVET programmes, assisting vocational institutions in raising the quality of their offerings. However, there is unease that certain underprivileged students, especially those pursuing postsecondary TVET, will not have access to sufficient financial assistance when needed (OECD 2021). Chalapati and Chalapati (2020) assert that the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) provides subsidies to private vocational education institutions, which are encouraged to grow Thailand’s capacity for training and education. Subsidies for VET private high schools differ according to the students’ profiles and fields of study. For instance, VET institutions that train members of underprivileged groups, such as students from marginalised groups or students with disabilities, receive more subsidies than other types of institutions.

3.3.1      Thailand’s obstacles to inclusive education

Although Thailand is progressing towards inclusive education, there are still barriers that must be overcome, such as mental, physical, and regulatory limitations (Vorapanya & Dunlap 2014). Although Thailand supports impaired students’ education, more work has to be done to expand the notion of inclusive education (Othman et al. 2022). All community youngsters must attend Thai schools regardless of their readiness or aptitude. Bualar (2016) asserts that children with disabilities are prevented from attending conventional schools because universal design is not well positioned in Thailand. Along with the buildings and environments found in schools, the commute from home to schoolis one of the physical obstacles (Kantavong 2018). People’s attitudes toward disability in Thailand are influenced by cultural influences, which may result in the notion that peers with impairments are less important. Thus, in addition to teaching Thai pupils how to assist their peers who have disabilities, they must also learn to appreciate and understand their peers.

Agbenyega and Klibthong (2015) claim that some teachers were unable to adapt the curriculum for students with disabilities and frequently taught the entire class using the same methods and materials, disregarding the special needs of each student. It is crucial to enhance pre-service regular teacher preparation programmes to incorporate curriculum and instructional adaptations for students with disabilities in regular classroom settings. This is because, in addition to special education teachers,  regular teachers and all other staff members are now accountable for meeting the needs of children with disabilities. To ensure opportunities are of the same calibre throughout all locations, efforts must be made to improve access for specific underrepresented populations, particularly adults (Janyam 2022; Vorapanya & Dunlap 2014). 

All people should have opportunities for inclusion due to TVET system policies (Moonpa et al. 2021). Providing greater opportunities to adults, including women, the group that is currently disadvantaged in the Thai TVET system, will improve system equity and help address skills shortages in the Thai labour market.

4        Discussion

Although policies and their implementation strategies differ, there is an indication of deliberate goodwill and effort as reflected in the targeted enrolment strategies and budgetary commitments to implementing inclusive policies and practices in TVET institutions. Even though Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand are working to advance inclusive TVET education, there are still obstacles that they must all overcome. There are certain policy obstacles at the macro level or the governmental level. The meso level, or TVET institutions, is characterised by knowledge, financial, attitude, and physical constraints. The social model of disability informs the discussion of these points. In general, inclusive education requires refinement. Inclusive funding for students with impairments is also required. Figure 2 shows the interrelationship of enabling practices and factors to achieve inclusivity in providing inclusive TVET education.

Figure 2: Framework for inclusive education in TVET (Source: authors)

The literature suggests that TVET colleges should ensure that students with impairments can access educational programmes in schools and become accepted as integral members of educational societies rather than requiring these students to have a specific level of aptitude to be admitted to colleges. It should be recognised that different kinds of disability require varied accommodations in terms of physical impediments such as infrastructure. It was observed that cultural impacts on attitudes regarding impediments were common in Thailand. According to Laska, Vibulpatanavong, and Evans (2017), most Thai students have “songsarn” or sympathy for their disabled classmates. This mindset is ingrained in Thai education. While this is a good practice, it may create the impression that classmates with impairments are less important. This means that in addition to teaching students how to support their classmates who are disabled, lecturers also need to teach them how to understand and appreciate their peers. One identified knowledge gap was the training that TVET lecturers lack to integrate curriculum and instructional modifications for students with disabilities into regular lectures. These topics need to be covered in the curriculum for pre-service teacher preparation. This is crucial because, in addition to special educational lecturers, TVET institutions, mainstream lecturers, and anyone else working with individuals with disabilities should address the needs of these students.

5        Conclusions

The review revealed that the three countries, Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand, are committed to providing quality education to all people despite their different disabilities. This is reflected in the existence of specific inclusive policies in each country, with evidence of continuous revisions to existing policies and guidelines to embrace developing and modern trends of inclusive practices in education and training. Several notable achievements have been accomplished in enrolling and sponsoring people from disadvantaged groups, but the three countries face several challenges in fulfilling their complete intentions. Thailand still has to overcome obstacles to inclusion in TVET training, including legislative, structural, mental, and informational ones. In contrast, Botswana still faces the dilemma of choosing the right approach of either standard or special classes for learners with specific disabilities. Several societal shifts have adversely impacted the adoption of inclusive education in South Africa. A few of the changes in society include context-specific issues like how diversity is managed in TVET colleges and educational reforms. While the literature provides valuable insights into the challenges and strategies for inclusive education in TVET, there is limited direct information specifically addressing “TVET-inclusive education”. 

The studies reviewed exposed the obstacles and developments experienced by inclusive TVET education. Every country has its obstacles and progress. Although the study does not systematically compare the three countries, it gives insights into how inclusive TVET education is developing in Botswana, South Africa, and Thailand. 

6        Recommendations

TVET institutions must organise capacity-building workshops to upskill current employees and make their practices more inclusive. Governments that wish to support inclusive education in TVET must periodically assess their inclusive education policies and practices to identify their advantages and disadvantages and maintain current global developments. To comply with the social model theory and eliminate all stereotypes in TVET education delivery, the notion of inclusivity needs refinement. All three nations must remain steadfast in their resolve to modernise their educational facilities and infrastructure to be suitable, open, and inclusive to everyone, including those with impairments. Empirical studies must be conducted in the three countries to gather perspectives and experiences from students, lecturers, and institutional leaders regarding the prevalence of inclusivity in TVET institutions. Empirical research must guide policy decisions and behaviours and align with global norms for inclusive behaviour.

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With the spread of COVID-19, education and training institutions around the world have moved towards online instruction to ensure the continuity of learning for students at a distance. Transition to an online environment poses special challenges in the delivery of TVET courses, which involve the development of hands-on skills as well as theoretical learning. The transition poses further challenges for developing countries in terms of the preparedness of training systems and the availability of digital technologies for online teaching. This paper presents the findings of research concerning the readiness and prevalence of Botswana Private Tertiary Education Providers (BAPTEP) for using online teaching platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic. A quantitative research design was used to gather data from a purposive sample of 119 participants from 4 BAPTEP colleges, comprising 18 TVET lecturers and 101 TVET students. Online questionnaires containing both closed-ended and open-ended questions were used, both to respect social distancing requirements and to obtain responses quickly. Descriptive statistics were then used to analyse and present the results, which exposed significant gaps in the preparedness of institutions, lecturers and students. Most BAPTEP institutions were not prepared in terms of having e-learning platforms in place, whilst most lecturers lacked preparation and training in using the online platforms to deliver emergency remote teaching. The results also revealed that many students encountered challenges to engaging in e-learning owing to lack of internet connectivity, lack of a computer or laptop, and inadequate training in the use of their college’s online learning platform. Based on the findings, the paper makes recommendations for supporting the transition to online teaching of TVET courses in Botswana.

Keywords: Online teaching, e-learning, flexible learning, institutions, skills development, digital technology

1        Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has forced many education and training institutions around the globe to switch from traditional face-to-face classes to e-learning methods. On the one hand, the shift to e-learning strategies was intended to avoid the spread of the disease by effecting social distancing to a greater extent than is possible in traditional face-to-face settings (BQA 2020). On the other hand, e-learning was meant to ensure the continuity of learning during the closure of schools due to the pandemic. In many countries, this has meant that interactive learning could be offered using Learning Management Systems (LMS). At the same time, practical skills training through workplace-based learning (WBL) was often interrupted by company closures (World Bank 2020). In countries that adopted online learning strategies before the pandemic, it has been possible to support work-based learners through use of e-learning materials (Harriden 2017; World Bank 2020). Online learning has in some cases improved access and enrolment opportunities due to its affordability and flexibility compared to school-based learning (Gannon 2020). Yet, despite concerted efforts, the integration of online technologies in the delivery of TVET has not been realised in many countries and TVET institutions (UNESCO 2020). For many learners, the COVID-19 outbreak posed not only a health threat, but also delayed their completion of studies and transition to employment (WHO 2020).

In Botswana, private tertiary institutions stepped up efforts to ensure continuous learning in the TVET sector, complementing coordinated strategies at the national level to provide inclusive e-learning opportunities (BQA 2020). These initiatives were implemented in close cooperation with the national quality assurance body, the Botswana Qualifications Authority (BQA). Update bulletins from BQA indicate that some Education and Training Providers (ETPs) started online lessons using e-learning platforms to deliver programmes. Even in cases where e-learning was not approved at the time of launching training programmes, BQA regarded the initiative as a temporary mitigating measure to minimize disruptions to teaching and learning during the lockdown (BQA 2020). However, BQA informed ETPs that they would also be required to implement mitigating strategies when they reopened, to assist learners who had not benefited from online learning.

At the national level, BQA has provided operational guidelines for ETPs in response to the COVID-19 pandemic (see www.bqa.org.bw). These guidelines were meant to assist ETPs in developing learning strategies to mitigate disruptions to teaching and learning and to ensure that learners have access to proposed new modes of instruction for content delivery during the lockdown period. The guidelines stipulate that ETPs must:

• Consider their individual settings and capacity when determining alternative, appropriate, and effective learning programme delivery solutions.
• Try to ensure that learners have access to the required learning resources in consultation with key stakeholders (sponsors, parents, learners, and internet providers, amongst others).
• Provide training and support to teaching staff for the changed delivery mode.

This paper presents the findings of research concerning the preparedness of Botswana Association of Private Tertiary Education Providers (BAPTEP) to respond to the need for online teaching of TVET courses during the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. In Botswana, private TVET providers tend to be more responsive to changes in the labour market than public institutions – by, for example, regularly updating curricula to reflect new skills needs and establishing linkages with employers to improve the employability of graduates (Kishun 2015). This paper discusses the importance of online teaching methodologies, evaluates the readiness of BAPTEP institutions to teach TVET courses online, and highlights the challenges faced by institutions to effectively use the online teaching platforms that have been established. The paper concludes with recommendations for supporting BAPTEP institutions’ transition to e-learning – a mode of delivering TVET that is likely to become inevitable in the future.

2        Benefits and Challenges of Online Learning Approaches in TVET

Blended learning is defined as the use of new technologies to combine face-to-face teaching with e-learning or mobile learning (Lam & Ng 2020). The method involves multiple learning venues, pedagogical strategies and elements of instructions (Bates 2015). Burns (2011) posits that the advantage of blended learning is not only in the media used, but also in its variety in terms of content, pedagogy and learning approaches. Combining face-to-face and online learning approaches can produce greater positive impacts than instruction using just one of these delivery modes.

The reasons for and advantages of using online teaching and learning platforms in TVET are numerous (Carr et al. 2018; Kanwar 2019). For example, Hartel (2017) points out that adoption of e-learning is likely to improve the ICT competencies of TVET learners, thereby enabling them to operate more effectively in a future of work characterised by greater automation as a consequence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (UNESCO 2020). In addition, online teaching platforms allow for distance and flexible learning, catering to learners with different work schedules, circumstances, styles and needs (Kanwar 2019). Several studies have shown that online learning has the potential to improve access to education and increase institutional enrolments (Dhawan 2020; UNESCO 2020; World Bank 2020). For example, the Open Training and Education Network (OTEN) in Australia increased its enrolments from 35,813 in 2006 to 118,060 in 2014 by expanding the range of online VET qualifications that it offers to more than 250 (Harriden 2017). Online training can also reduce the amount of time spent in class-based training. In Canada, online teaching enabled Red River College in Manitoba to allocate 80-85% of time in its four-year apprenticeship programs to practical work-based learning, with 15-20% of time allocated for college-based learning (Little 2017). E-learning can also lower the cost of study and thereby build more inclusive societies (UN 2020). Finally, digital learning environments can enable teachers to work with experts outside of their local area to enhance the quality and relevance of their online training provision (Corbeil & Corbeil, 2015; Hartel 2017; UNESCO 2020).

Just as blended learning enables learning from more than one venue using more than one method, TVET can also be assessed from different venues, with schools responsible for theoretical assessments and workplaces responsible for practical assessments. Online teaching platforms offer an efficient way of transferring workplace-based assessment decisions to the main campus for merging with theoretical assessments (Lam & Ng 2020). These assessment decisions may be transmitted electronically to central institutions, which are then responsible for coordinating all points of assessment until certification of the learner, including by orienting learners in the use of online platforms from the onset (Hartel 2017). Apprentices and TVET learners undertaking WBL can continue to be supported by their institutions through e-learning materials (e.g., simulations and online skills manuals), while student diaries and logbooks can be logged online to build e-portfolios of evidence, which can then be shared on e-learning platforms to assist staff in reaching practical assessment decisions (Harriden 2017).

To fulfil its potential, blended learning requires plenty of resources that should complement each other in the teaching and learning cycle of TVET courses, both in schools and in the workplace (ILO 2020). Harriden (2017) points out that online learning involves a team of competent human resources, comprising full-time school-based teachers, part-time teachers, and offsite teachers. In situations where online teaching fully engages industry-based experts, resources to support teaching and learning, together with assessments, must be provided in the workplace. These resources should include internet services and the digital equipment necessary to allow industry experts to participate in content writing and assessments and to ensure the transfer of current industry experiences (Hartel 2017). Online teaching and learning also require infrastructural resources, including internet connectivity, computer/laptop, webcam, headset and printers (Bates 2015).

Successful transition to e-learning also depends on teacher, student and institutional readiness (UNESCO 2020; Modesto & Tau 2006). In terms of institutional preparedness, a study by Kibata (2013) of Kenya’s TVET institutions found that some institutions lacked the infrastructure and resources necessary to support e-learning. The same study also revealed a lack of computer literacy amongst students and staff. Several studies have identified lack of teacher preparedness to be one of the core challenges in shifting from traditional teaching methods to modern ICT-based teaching methods (UNESCO 2017; Carr et al. 2018). In some cases, teachers lack the preparation and training to deliver practical skills training online (Richardson 2012). In other cases, teachers are resistant to change and view preparation of online teaching materials and associated assessment as extra work (UNESCO 2020). High levels of motivation and a willingness to acquire new skills are required among teachers, assessors and learners for a smooth transition to online instruction (Carr et al. 2018). TVET institutions also need to be creative to develop and continuously improve their e-learning strategies within their available resources of manpower, facilities, and technological platforms (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2020).

3        Research Focus and Methodology

To assess how well private tertiary TVET institutions in Botswana were prepared for the shift to online teaching methodologies during the COVID-19 learning disruptions, a quantitative research design was used to gather data from a purposive sample of 119 participants (18 TVET lecturers and 101 students) from 4 BAPTEP colleges using online questionnaires containing both closed-ended and open-ended questions. Online questionnaires were used, both to observe COVID-19 protocols of social distancing and to reduce the time required for data collection. To ensure anonymity, participants were instructed not to write their names on the questionnaires and were assured that their responses would be kept confidential and used only for the purpose of this study.

Permission to conduct the research was sought from the Ministry of Tertiary Education Research Science and Technology, and the research permit was used to obtain permission from each college to distribute questionnaires to its lecturers and students. The researchers believed that the selected participants were those best placed to provide insights on the readiness of TVET colleges in implementing online teaching during COVID-19 disruptions of face-to-face lectures, since the participants were directly affected by the disruptions. Participating students and lecturers were also invited to share their experiences and provide recommendations for improving e-learning strategies.

Research questions were designed based on a literature review and were especially influenced by Criteria 10 and 14 of BQA’s Learning Programme Accreditation guidelines concerning the quality and appropriateness of institutions’ infrastructure and resources (BQA 2020). Criterion 10 focuses on how institutions anticipate delivering registered programmes, and it is at this stage where institutions highlight their intention to offer online teaching. To gain accreditation, qualifying institutions must prove they have the infrastructure in place to support the online delivery mode. Criterion 14 seeks to establish whether ETPs have the capability and capacity to sustain delivery of e-learning programmes. One of the clauses for the criterion stipulates that institutions must “ensure prescribed resources, inclusive of library facilities, internet access and online resources, are consistent with the provision typical of learning programmes leading to the qualification type to be offered” (ibid.).

The following questions guided the study:

• To what extent were BAPTEP institutions ready to offer online teaching and learning?
• To what extent are online teaching methodologies supported in BAPTEP institutions?
• Are online methods used to assess TVET courses?
• What challenges do BAPTEP institutions face in the use of online TVET delivery?
• Do institutions have an adequate infrastructure and resources to facilitate online teaching and learning of TVET courses?

In terms of data analysis, descriptive statistics were used to analyse the results of closed-ended questions, while responses to open-ended questions were thematically analysed.

4        Results and Discussion

4.1        BAPTEP Institutions’ Readiness to teach TVET courses online in Botswana

Student responses to the questionnaires suggest that most of BAPTEP institutions included in the study did not have online teaching and learning platforms for TVET courses in place prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (see Table 1). Only just over one-third (33.6%) of students surveyed agreed that their college had online teaching platforms for TVET courses, while only 26.7% agreed that an LMS had been in place. An even lower percentage (16.8%) agreed that students were trained in the use of the LMS, suggesting that even where LMS were in place, they were not being effectively utilised. These issues do not seem to stem predominantly from students’ unwillingness to engage with new technologies, since over 40% of students responding to the survey agreed that online platforms can be effectively used to teach TVET courses (46.5%) and that online methods are effective for delivering TVET teaching material (41.6%) as well as for assessing TVET courses (46.5%). Most student surveyed (37.7%) also agreed that the content of TVET courses delivered online tend to be of acceptable quality. Students’ responses indicate that a key reason why online methods were not more widely employed in delivering TVET courses in Botswana prior to the COVID-19 pandemic was a lack of adequate infrastructure and resources on the part of students (56.4%) and/or TVET institutions (40.6%).

Table 1: Students’ responses on College Level of Preparedness (n=101)

Similar trends emerge from lecturers’ responses to questions regarding their colleges’ preparedness for the shift to online teaching and learning (see Table 2). However, a higher percentage of lecturers said that their college had online teaching platforms (38.9%) and LMS (44.4%) in place prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, and one-half of lecturers surveyed said they had been trained in the use of the LMS. Nevertheless, they overwhelmingly agreed (77.8%) that students lacked training in the use of the LMS. As with the students responding to the survey, most lecturers agreed that online platforms can be effectively used to teach TVET courses (50%) and that online methods can be effective for delivering TVET teaching materials (44.4%) and assessing TVET courses (61.1%). However, they found fault with their colleges’ procedures for assuring the quality of online teaching content for TVET courses, as well as for monitoring the effectiveness of the use of LMS. As with the students, the lecturers surveyed agreed that their institution – and even more so their students – lack the required infrastructure and resources to facilitate online teaching and learning of TVET courses.

Table 2: Lecturers’ responses on College Level of Preparedness (n=18)

4.2        Lecturers’ and Students’ Readiness for Online Learning

In terms of what infrastructure and resources students lack, most students responding to the questionnaire cited lack of internet connectivity (70.3%) more so than lack of access to a computer or laptop – although over one-third (35.7%) of students surveyed said they do not have a computer or laptop to operate from home (see Table 3). In line with their earlier responses, most students surveyed (61.4%) said they had not often used their college’s LMS prior to lockdown and that, due to lack of internet connectivity and/or access to a computer or laptop, they experience difficulties accessing or using the LMS at home (48%). Most (around one-half) rely on the internet, rather than their college’s LMS, for e-learning.

Table 3: Students’ Readiness for Online Learning (n=101)

TVET lecturers, on the other hand, were found to be better-equipped to offer online teaching from home (see Table 4). 72.2% of lecturers surveyed said they own a computer or laptop, 61.1% said they have internet at home, and two-thirds said they have the skills required to interact with learners through the LMS. Nevertheless, a significant proportion – around one-quarter of lecturers surveyed – said they lack internet connectivity and/or a computer/laptop, which makes it difficult for them to access and use the LMS from home. Among those who could access their college’s LMS, the vast majority (55.6%) said they would recommend it to other institutions.

Table 4: Lecturers’ Readiness for Online Teaching (n=18)

4.3        Challenges faced by BAPTEP Colleges in teaching TVET courses online

In terms of the challenges faced by BAPTEP institutions in teaching TVET courses online, both students and lecturers responding to the questionnaire regarded the main issues as arising from the student side: lack of access to the internet and/or a computer or laptop, and lack of training in using their college’s LMS (see Figures 1 and 2). In addition, students are in many cases resistant to changing their mode of learning from traditional methods to online methods.

A further challenge concerns a lack of technical capacity to use online platforms to deliver practical skills training and support WBL. To understand the challenges faced by BAPTEP institutions in providing online practical skills training, students and staff participating in the study were given a list of six limitations and were asked to tick any number that applied to their specific situations. Figures 3 and 4 show their responses. Both the lecturers and students indicated that the e-learning platforms in their institutions lacked virtual workshops for students to receive hands-on practical skills training. Most LMS also did not allow for simulations, further inhibiting practical skills development and students’ ability to apply their theoretical learning. Lecturers’ lack of training and expertise in using the LMS was also illustrated by the fact that 44% of students and 50% of staff reported lack of interaction between lecturers and students on the online platforms. These issues have grave implications for the relevance of TVET courses and therefore also the employability of TVET graduates.

5        Conclusion and Recommendations

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the readiness of private tertiary institutions in Botswana to initiate online instruction of TVET programs during the COVID-19 pandemic learning disruptions. The questionnaire results suggest that most BAPTEP institutions were not ready for the transition to an online environment, despite some colleges having established online teaching and learning platforms before the pandemic. This was confirmed by responses from both students and lecturers, over 40% of whom stated that their college lacked the necessary infrastructure and resources to support e-learning in TVET. Furthermore, a large percentage of the TVET lecturers claimed not to have received training in the use of their institution’s LMS, which may have had an impact on their capacity to use the system to deliver hands-on practical training or even to interact with students online. Most TVET students surveyed also experienced challenges in engaging in online learning owing to lack of internet connectivity, lack of a computer or laptop, and/or lack of training in the use of their college’s LMS. These issues may explain why many of the students were reluctant to shift to online learning, despite appreciating that online platforms and methods can be effectively used to teach and assess TVET courses.

Based on these findings, the following recommendations are suggested:

• BAPTEP institutions should perform realistic assessments of their readiness to offer online courses and take steps to improve their ICT infrastructure and resources in line with BQA guidelines for e-learning provision.
• Both initial and in-service teacher education should be reformed to ensure that TVET lecturers receive training in the competences needed to work effectively in online and blended learning settings.
• Training on the use of online and blended learning methodologies should be offered to both institutional and workplace assessors and moderators.
• Institutions should seek partnerships/buy-in of industry and employers on the utilisation of online teaching and assessment methodologies for TVET learners in the workplace.
• Colleges should educate students on the use of their LMS and the benefits of online and blended learning.
• Institutions and internet providers should find ways of improving students’ access to the internet and computers/laptops.
• Further research is needed on effective models of online teaching and learning in TVET to inform practice.

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Citation:

Hondonga, J., Chinengundu, T. & Maphosa, P. K. (2021). Online Teaching of TVET Courses: An Analysis of Botswana Private Tertiary Education Providers Responsiveness to the Covid-19 Pandemic Learning Disruptions. In: TVET^@Asia, issue 16, 1-14. Online: http://tvet-online.asia/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Setiawan_issue16_TVET.pdf  (retrieved 31.12.2020).