Sustainable development and greening are important developing trends highlighted as a global awareness among the member countries in the Shanghai Consensus of the 3rd International Congress on TVET—Transforming TVET: Building skills for work and life 2012. Together with the efforts of the international world, UNESCO UNEVOC International (Bonn) carried out a research project titled “Greening TVET & Skills in Asia Pacific Region”. As one of the UNEVOC Centres, Shenzhen Polytechnic (SZPT, one of the best higher TVET colleges in China) participated the research by carrying out a questionnaire survey and a preliminary analysis of the collected data and desk research results in 3 polytechnics in Guangdong Province. And this report provides readers with the survey background, process and preliminary analysis results concerning with greening in construction and agriculture in China. From the report one can see the policy and regulation construction for greening in China, learn its development targets and the developing status in the two productive sectors and in education, including teachers’ and students’ feedback on the issue. Two cases are also provided for readers to learn the teachers’ actions for greening.

Keywords: sustainable development, environment protection, greening, higher TVET, China, Shenzhen Polytechnic, UNEVOC, laws & regulations, strategies, questionnaire survey

1 Background

Environment protection for sustainable development has been an important concern in the international world. And the level of the concern has kept going up for decades. Early in 1972, United Nations organized a Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden, to indicate the world concern about the environment. By the end of the same year, General Assembly of the United Nations decided to establish United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2997 XXVII）taking the mission to stimulate, promote and facilitate member countries and their peoples in improving their quality of life without compromising the quality of life of the future generations, and to lead and promote partnership among member countries for protecting the environment (UNEP 2015). In 1988, the World Meteorological Organization and UNEP established theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2015), taking the leadership in assessing the world climate changes. In June, 1992, UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) (Rio +5) held in Rio de Janeiro during which Earth Summit –Agenda 21 was published (UN 1992).  It formulated a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development. Then in August, 2002, World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2002, Rio+10), the second Earth Summit, was convened in Johannesburg, South Africa, affirming UN commitment to “full implementation” of Agenda 21 alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals(UNESCO 2000) and other international agreements. In June, 2011, UN again held a Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to mark the 20th anniversary of the historic Earth Summit and to improve the institutional framework for sustainable development. In December 2012, General Assembly of the United Nations put in place with a decision (67/251) to “strengthen and upgrade” the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and establish universal membership of its governing body, which “provided a new, fully-representative platform to strengthen the environmental dimension of sustainable development, and provides all governments with an equal voice on the decisions and action needed to support the global environment, and ensure a fairer share of the world’s resources for all” (Achim Steiner, United Nations Under-Secretary-General and UNEP Executive Director at the 67th General Assembly of the United Nations, UNEP 2012). 

As for UNESCO, a related theme Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) has been put into its agenda. Agenda 21was the first international document that identified education as an essential tool for achieving sustainable development and highlighted areas of action for education. In the 2000 UN Summit, the above mentioned Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which was finally signed by presidents and representatives of 189 countries again puts forward targets for the whole world for sustainable development including protecting environment and improving education for all. With the United Nations General Assembly’s declaration of 2005-2014 (UN 2002)  the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) in 2002 (Resolution 57/254), ESD, EFA (Education for All) and UNLD (United Nations Literacy Decade) have become the most important priority components for overall sustainable development in UNESCO’s work. And UNESCO has led the Decade and has developed an International Implementation Scheme (UNESCO 2003) for it. In 2012, UNESCO organized the 3rd International Congress on TVET—Transforming TVET: Building skills for work and life in Shanghai and put forward the Shanghai Consensus (UNESCO 2012) which has directed the developing route of ESD globally, including TVET.

As a branch of UNESCO, UNEVOC has also been in positive actions for ESD, for which greening TVET and skills has been a quite important concept for TVET development no matter in developed countries or developing ones. And the concept has been highlighted as a global awareness among the member countries. In the past a few years, UNEVOC has organized various conferences (including the on-line virtual ones), workshops and symposiums to discuss the theme, work out guidance for member countries and so on (UNEVOC 2015), including researches and capacity building activities.

In 2015, a research titled ‘Greening TVET & Skills in Asia Pacific Region’ has been under implementation led by UNESCO UNEVOC International Centre (Bonn) (UNEVOC International (Bonn)). The objective of it is to collect data and analyze the uptake of green skills in TVET programmes in those fields (construction, agriculture) so as to help educators and policy makers understand the gaps in skills training provision and highlight good practices. As one of the 255 UNEVOC Centres in the world, Shenzhen Polytechnic (SZPT) (one of the best higher TVET colleges in China) was accepted to carry out the fundamental survey for the data and information collection and preliminary analysis of green skills for the regional research project. And this article presents the contributed results of the survey and the analysis. It is particularly focused on the available legislation and regulation building at the state level, training framework, present status of green skill education in polytechnic and examines the problems exist.

2 Survey design, requirements and research methodology

The research design was developed by the UNEVOC International (Bonn) that provided all participating countries with the guidelines including desk research topics and survey instruments. Two survey instruments, one for students, the other for teachers, were developed to map the current situation in terms of greening TVET in formal settings. They were aimed at collecting fundamental data and desk research findings to evaluate participating countries’ current policies and status of green skills. At the end of the project, each country provides its report for further analysis of the overall picture of green skill development in the region.

Having got the study task from the UNESCO International (Bonn), Shenzhen Polytechnic started the work immediately. By contacting other two higher TVET institutions in the same province, i.e. Guangdong Construction Vocational Technology Institute and Guangzhou Panyu Polytechnic, 3 teams of teachers and students for the preliminary data collection were formed in the 3 polytechnics. For the survey, various methods were applied, such as document study, web information searching, questionnaire data collection, group discussion, data analysis, information summary, research report and so on. The teachers were asked to fulfill the desk research with document study in teams and complete the teaching staff questionnaire individually. In each institute, a teacher who was good in English language was also requested to provide guidance and help to the students. He/She explained the meaning of each question in the student questionnaire to the students while they were organized together in a classroom to give their personal answers to the questions individually. All the finished materials were scanned or computerized and then sent to Shenzhen Polytechnic for the initial analysis and country report writing.

The pity is that due to time and resource limitation, the sample for this study was not big enough: only 16 surveys from students in 2 polytechnics, 6 surveys from teachers and 3 desk researches from the 3 polytechnics. And all the study just focused on construction and agriculture sectors.

3 Survey outcome

3.1 The Situation of Greening in China

3.1.1 Academic Concerns of the Theme

Generally speaking, China’s attention to this theme rose up sharply in the new century. By searching with the key words “绿色（green）” and “教育（education）” in China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), one of the largest Knowledge Resource Integrated Database in China, the reporter gets a data collection of academic papers and formal reports published on the theme from 1961 to 2015 in China. The annual numbers of the papers from 1961 to 1989 are less than a hundred. And the figure for 2015 is only of the first quarter. Thus only the figures from 1990 to 2014 are applied to work out a trend chart of the research of the theme. The trend indicated in the graph is that the academic papers began to increase in 2000 and rose up sharply for over ten years, reaching the top point recently.

Figure 1: Research Trend of Green Education in China

3.1.2 Available Laws and Policies

Greening and sustainable development has been continually highlighted by the Central Government for decades so as to lead the national development onto a sustainable route. Since 1980s, environment protection has been a national basic strategy. In 1984, China established a National Committee of Environment Protection. In 1989, the first Law of Environment Protection (NPC 1989) was issued. After the 1992 UNESCO Conference on Environment and Development, China became one of the countries firstly made and implemented strategy for sustainable development. In 1993, a Committee of Environment and Resources of Standing Committee of the China National People’s Congress was established. In the past two decades, China National People’s Congress and State Council have issued numbers of laws, regulations for protecting environment and natural resources. In 2011, six important state ministries at the Central Government level jointly proclaimed an announcement on issuing “National Action Program for Environmental Publicity and Education (2011-2015)” (6 State Bodies 2011) (6 State Bodies indicate the following 6 state ministries: the Ministry of Environmental Protection, the Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, the Civilization Office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, the Ministry of Education, the CYL Central Committee and the National Women’s Federation.). The announcement stresses that “strengthening of environmental publicity and education, enhancing social awareness of environmental protection need to be placed at an even more important position. Governments on different levels should promote the establishment of an action system for involving people in environmental protection. Practical work should be carried out for accelerating the construction of resource-saving and environment-friendly society, for upgrading the level of ecological civilization and creating a favorable atmosphere of public opinion and social environment”. Provincial and local governments have also put forward over a thousand concerned regulations. By now, China has established its systematic laws and regulations for the protection of environment, natural resources and sustainable growth. In addition, China has also developed several strategic development plans concerned for the sustainable development.

In the field of construction, the China National People’s Congress has promulgated 15 laws and regulations concerning with green buildings, such as “Construction Law” (NPC 1997), “Renewable Energy Law” (NPC 2005), “Energy Conservation Law” (NPC 2007a), “Law of Urban and Rural Planning” (NPC 2007b) etc. Central government has also published policies, for example, “Points on Accelerating the Development of Circular Economy” (State Council 2005a), “An Announcement on Recent Work for Building a Resource-saving Society” (State Council 2005b), “Directive Opinion on Constructing Energy & Land-saving Residences and Public Buildings” (MOHURD 2005) “Medium and Long-term Planning for Energy Saving” (National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) 2004), Announcement on Releasing the Decision on Work Distribution among Sectors for the Implementation of the 12^th Five-year Plan for Environment Protection (State Council 2012b) etc.

For a proper systematic development in the field of construction, a rating and labeling system of green buildings has been formed in China based on the researches carried out by Tsinghua University, China Academy of Building Research, Beijing Institute of Architectural Design and Research and other research institutions. In 2007, China Ministry of Construction issued a “Green Building Rating and Labeling Management Method” (Ministry of Construction 2007) and “Technical Details for Green Building Assessment” (MOHURD 2014). They provide criteria and regulation to start the formal assessment of green buildings. In 2008, Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD) further issued “Technical Guidelines for Building Energy Efficiency Evaluation and Labeling” (MOHURD 2008). It requires that buildings need to be evaluated with the relevant standards and technical criteria for energy efficiency and energy consumption and the qualified buildings can be obviously labeled as “Green Building” to the public.

In the field of agriculture, similar efforts have also been made for breaking the challenges in agricultural resources and environment protection, including protection of arable land, conservation and efficient utilization of water resources, efficient controlling of environmental pollution, realization of agricultural ecological renovation. China government works vigorously to promote the optimization and development and strives to achieve by 2020 sustainable development of agriculture and has achieved already initial results as planned. According to a recent report of Xinhua News Agency, the China State Council Executive Meeting has approved in March, 2015 the “National Plan for Sustainable Agricultural Development” (CULCEN 2015). It clearly describes the future direction and aim of agriculture development in China and the concerned work arrangements and requirements. According to the Plan, China will focus on 5 aspects for agricultural development. 1) Efforts will be made to optimize the development layout, enhance stability of agricultural productivity, promote ecologically circulating development of agriculture, and achieve more than 60% of better agricultural technological contribution rate by 2020. 2) Efforts will be made to guarantee the quantity and quality of stable arable land, and ensure that the whole country has no less than 533 million hectares of high-standard farmland that can ensure stable yields despite drought or excessive rains. 3) Efforts will be made to carry out red line management of water resources, promote water-saving irrigation, expand rain-fed agriculture. The aim is to achieve 0.55 ratio of effective utilization of irrigation water and realize efficient water-saving irrigation to an area of 19.2 million hectares by 2020. 4) Efforts will be made to prevent farmland pollution, comprehensively control cultivation contamination, improve rural environment. The aim is to achieve in main agricultural areas zero growth of chemical fertilizers and pesticides application by 2020, fundamental and comprehensive utilization of cultivation wastes, basic recollection and recycling of agricultural plastic sheeting and pesticide packaging waste, overall utilization of crops straws by 2030. 5) Efforts will be made to renovate agricultural ecology, enhance ecological functions. The aim is to realize over 23% of forest coverage rate and 56% of national comprehensive vegetation coverage of grassland by 2020 (National Plan for Sustainable Agricultural Development (2015-2030), 2015).

3.1.3 Strategic Targets and International Contribution

In planning and targeting perspectives, the Chinese Central Government has been making continuing efforts to promote the concept of greening and sustainable development all over China in all sectors. And it has also set very high strategic targets for both domestic promotion and for international contribution.

President Xi Jinping of China declared together with President Barack Hussein Obama of the USA during Xi’s visit to the USA in last September that both of them will support the implementation of Sino-US Joint Statement on Climate Change signed in Nov. 12^th, 2014. In the bilateral agreement, China promises based on the figures of 2005 to decrease 60% -65% of carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP and to have forest stock volume increase about 4.5 billion M³ by 2030. China is planning to launch a nationwide carbon emission trading system in 2017, which will cover steel, electricity, chemical industries, building materials, paper making and non-ferrous metals and other key industries. China pledges to promote low-carbon buildings and green transportation. The targets are:

• to have 50% of the newly constructed buildings as green buildings by 2020 in cities and towns,
• to achieve 30% of motorized public transportation of all mobilized movement in metropolitans and middle sized cities,
• to complete the next phase of the truck vehicle fuel efficiency standards by 2016 and put into effect by 2019,
• to support and accelerate continually the reduction of utilizing hydro fluorocarbons, including the 2020 effective control tri-fluoromethane (HFC-23) emissions (CULCEN 2015).

For promoting global sustainable development, China decides to offer RMB 20 billion yuan to establish a “China Fund for South-South Cooperation in Coping with Climate Changes” to support other developing countries in dealing with climate changes, including enhancing their ability of utilizing the green climate funds (People.com 2015).

By now, China has established 6 provincial and 36 municipal low carbon experimental sites (CULCEN 2015). That is to say all provincial territories expect Hunan, Ningxia, Tibet and Qinghai have at least one low carbon experimental cities or towns. In other words, low carbon city experiment has been implemented all over China (CULCEN 2015).

To carry out work according to the legislation and government requirements, the concerned sectors have also their own corresponding organizations, development plans and strategies for the set aims and sustainable development. Take construction for example, specified organizations, such as Science and Technology and Industrialization Development Center of MOHURD, China Green Building Council (China GBC), China Association of Building Energy Efficiency (CABEE), Specialized Research Committee of Eco-cities etc. (One may refer to the following concerned websites of these organizations:http://www.cstcmoc.org.cn/, http://www.chinagb.net/, http://www.cabee.org/, http://www.cityup.org/chinaecoc/.) They have been quite active in pushing forward the development of green construction. In 2013, the MOHURD issued the Action Plan for Green Buildings (MOHURD 2013). It sets the tasks to have 20% of new constructed buildings in towns and cities meet the green construction criteria by the end of 2015 and to realize basically energy conservation renovation of the worthwhile buildings in towns and cities in the north heating areas by the end of 2020. In Guangdong province, its Provincial 12th 5-Year Plan for Construction Energy Conservation (Department of Housing And Urban-rural Development of Guangdong Province 2011) sets the task to have 99.5% energy efficiency standards for the new green buildings be reached, apply the new green building standards in all large-scale invested newly constructed public buildings, government offices, schools, stadiums, other public welfare facilities, all new buildings in Guangzhou and Shenzhen. In the period, Guangdong Province will build 4 more green eco-cities, give more efforts in training of green ecological buildings and push forward implementation of green building assessment system and standards. Based on researches and practices, industrialization, standardization and industrialized and structured products have been the natural genes of green buildings. They have become kernel elements of the green building industry nowadays.

For agricultural development, the tasks for these years are mainly of two according the China National Development Plan for Modern Agriculture proclaimed by the State Council in 2012:

1. By the end of 2015, development of modern agriculture should have significant progress. The supply of grain and other major agricultural products are effectively guaranteed. The structure of agriculture becomes more reasonable while the level of concerned materials and equipments obviously upgraded and technology supporting capacity is significantly enhanced. Based on these, agricultural production and management will be constantly optimized so as to have the agricultural production system perfectly industrialized, land productivity, labor productivity and resource utilization significantly improved and to have the eastern coastal areas, suburbs of big cities and large agricultural pioneer areas realize basically modern agriculture.
2. In perspective of 2020, development of modern agriculture will have breakthrough results. A new agriculture sector will be formed basically with advanced technology and equipment, optimized organization, perfect system of production, powerful logistical supply support. And such agriculture can produce comprehensive outcomes and benefits. Meanwhile, modernization of agriculture will be realized in major advanced agricultural product areas.

3.1.4 Concerned Training Organizations

All these policies and strategic plans, of course, bring about a lot of changes in jobs, working requirements, needed skills and training requests. For these changes and training needs, different sectors have established their own training bodies and organizations to provide up-to-date concept and concerned technical trainings. For example in construction sector, there are National Mayor Training Institute (Institute of Caders, MOHURD), China Design and Research Institute of Architecture Standards, Science and Technology Development Promotion Center of MOHURD, Human Resource Development Center of MOHURD, Qualification Registration Center of MOHURD, Research Institute of Standards and Norms of MOHURD (and related institutes for standards compiling ) etc. In agriculture sector, there are Training Department of Central Agricultural Broadcasting and Television School, Institute of Management Cadres of Ministry of Agriculture, Education and Training Department of China Agricultural Society, Research Institute of Agricultural Information of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing Research Institute of Mechanization of Ministry of Agriculture, Education and Training Department of Human Resources Development Center of Ministry of Agriculture, Fruit Tree Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Of course they are only small part of such training institutions all over China. In addition, TVET schools and higher polytechnics certainly have the responsibility as well to be important bases for greening education and training.

3.2 Outcome of the Preliminary Questionnaire Analysis

3.2.1 Understanding and Feedback from the Teachers

The collected data with the questionnaire for teaching staff indicate that teachers have been strongly influenced by national environmental regulations and government initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy and in greening training standards. Correspondingly, local communities and industries and even educational institutions have also put forward their related regulations and require concerned changes, which enhance the influence of the national policies and regulations. Comparatively, the influence of international regulations in China is no stronger than the national, government, local and industrial ones. This matches with the character of Chinese government and people.

The answers to question 36 in the Teaching Staff Questionnaire (“36. In terms of Green Economic Transitions, what motivated the changes in your programs/ courses over the last two years?”) tell us that some teachers here in the polytechnics are making changes in their programmes/courses accordingly due to practical green economic transitions in daily life, such as there are more energy from renewable sources, more products and services that increase energy efficiency, more processes that reduce/remove pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and transfer to recycling and reusing, that conserve natural resources etc. These changes are based on teachers’ close connecting with industry and professional associations and even some private enterprises. These changes are usually reflected in some “general” subjects and some “specialized” subjects by providing students some concepts and middle and even low level skills. Motivated by these changes, some teachers are in action themselves. The following are the two cases happening in Shenzhen Polytechnic (SZPT).

Case 1: Embedding Greening in Course with the National Sector Criteria

The School of Media and Communication, SZPT, is the institute where set the Chinese Sub-Committee of Technology for Printing Books and Magazines, Sub-Committee of Technology for Package Printing under the Chinese National Committee of Printing Technology Standardization. Two deans of the School are Chief Secretaries of the two sub-Committees respectively. They have led the drafting of the two very important greeting criteria for the sector in recent years, i.e. Green printing-Terms and Green printing-General Technical Requirements & Assessment Methods–Part 1: Planographic Printingwhich were formally published on April 14^th, 2015 by the China State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television. (SAPPRFT 2015) Based on these and other concerned criteria for the printing sector, the School has embedded the criteria in its module named “Standardization and Quality Assessing Techniques for Printing” (SZPT Module No. 50452028) introducing to the students the national and international criteria for the sector and the concerned assessing skills. Based on this, they are going to develop a new module named “Introduction of Standardization” from next semester on.

Case 2: Study Greening and Bring Changes in Instructing Modules of Exhibition Design

A group of art teachers in SZPT has been considering greening in their instruction of graphic design since 2007³⁴. Later during 2011-2012, one of them went to USA for a visiting scholar year when he noticed a textbook titled “Okala Ecological Design” (2004 Edition). The book has been edited by a group of ecological art designers and has been recommended by USA Association for Industrial Design. At present, more than a hundred art specialties in USA higher education institutions are applying the book for their education of product design, construction interior design, graphic design and so on. In addition, the teacher also found another closely related book titled “Okala Practitioner, Integrating Ecological Design” (2013 Edition). After being back to SZPT, the teacher organized his team to study the two books and they have absorbed the kernel concepts in the books while improving their consideration and practice for embedding greening in their instruction of art design. At present, they have formulated their own teaching model for embedding greening concept in their classroom teaching, i.e. input of concepts for sustainable design→specialty instruction→output of sustainable design results. They try firstly to embed “low carbon sustainable recycling design” in their teaching hypothesis and teaching principles for delivering their two closely related modules, i.e. Practice of Exhibition Design and Systematic Design of Exhibition Stands. They emphasize the input “low carbon sustainable recycling” and “innovative design programmes” in classroom so as to help the students keep in mind greening concepts and output satisfactory results. Their changes and practices have already been summarized in the published academic papers.(Xiong Taotao, et. al. 2007, 2012, 2013a, 2013b, 2014, 2015)

Proudly speaking, the impact of these changes has already reflected the students, such as their employability, self-employment, and advancing the students’ skills for protecting environment. In addition, the changes promote the students for life-long learning and low-carbon transition. The teachers all agree (including strongly agree and agree) such a change brings about cognitive competence improvement among the students, including all 9 aspects listed in question 56 as follows.

In addition, changes also give the students some improvement in their technological skills, such as item 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 11 listed in Question 58 as follows.

Upgrading of interpersonal and intrapersonal competence, including all items except 2) in the list of question 60, is also achieved though the changes. Greening education has led the students to conserve water, power, fuel, to sort waste, follow safe working methods and so on.

3.2.2 Understanding and Feedback from the Students

The outcome of the Student Questionnaire can be summarized as the following.

1. Channels for students to learn greening skills are three, i.e. in general subjects, specialized subjects and industry placement during courses.
2. Students have improved their cognitive, technological, interpersonal and intrapersonal competences through the learning. All the improvement items in question 20 (cognitive) and 22 (technological) (see the following Question lists) are recognized except “how to judge the truth of a matter” and “environment risk management” getting only low support. Similarly, students have improved their intrapersonal competences quite a lot for the items in question 26 and 27 are completely supported. Students think that the green learning helps them in life. Comparatively speaking, benefit is smaller in interpersonal competences improvement for only 5 out of 8 items get 2/3 students’ support even though all 8 items win support from more than 1/2 of the students. In this aspect, the most accepted benefit is that it help the students to learn “strategic and leadership skills to enable change”.

Note: SA :Strongly agree; A: Agree; Ud: Undecided; D: Disagree; SD: Strongly disagree

Note: SA :Strongly agree; A: Agree; Ud: Undecided; D: Disagree; SD: Strongly disagree

Note: SA :Strongly agree; A: Agree; Ud: Undecided; D: Disagree; SD: Strongly disagree

Note: SA: Strongly agree; A: Agree; Ud: Undecided; D: Disagree; SD: Strongly disagree

1. Students have widely accepted green concept and begin to influence their daily behaviors. They have accepted environment protection as a basic standard for their behaviour. Yet the major obstacles in front of them for learning more green skills are the following, the greening content is not included in curriculum, teachers’ weak awareness and confidence in environment issues, people’s weak interests in the issue in workplace. All of them have weakened the student interest and efforts in greening development.
2. Suggestions for the students to develop further environment skills in the questionnaire, i.e. items in question 44-51 are widely accepted by the students.

3.2.3 Summary of the Questionnaire Analysis

The above preliminary questionnaire analysis results are just based on a small number of samples. They may just reflect a corner of green education in higher TVET institutions in China. We all know that the most difficult things for greening is to carry out practical and efficient work for achieving the aims bit by bit steadily. Changing people’s awareness of greening, involving massive people to offer their own contributions for greening development are the kernel. In China, a proper environment for greening education has not been satisfactory yet. For the answers in Section 4 of the Teaching Staff Questionnaire show us that no means are available at the institutional level for certifying environmental skills in existing qualification standards, no assessment mechanisms and no proper curriculum at present. School administrations have not taken the development of “green attitude” as an initiative for their staff. And teachers themselves have not taken greening as an important content for their students. They even think that they have no time for greening education. In addition, they themselves are lack of corresponding skills and are not confident in carrying out greening education. Greening training of the teachers is mainly depended on teachers themselves by mentoring of more experienced teachers and on-line courses although some professional associations, skill councils bring them some hopes by providing some concerned training, workshops and in-house seminars.

4 Conclusion

China is a country that development goes through a top to bottom processing format. In the past 2 decades, Chinese government has given quite a lot of efforts in leading the whole country to a green economy and society development route. And systematic legislation and regulations have established and all sectors have been following up with various actions, development plans and implementations and so on. Great achievement has been made while quite a lot of problems still exist.

Through this survey, the positive development in greening perspective can be summarized as the following points.

1. Chinese government is quite keen on greening and has put it into its kernel working agenda for development while providing very strong support for it. In order to guarantee the greening for overall social and economic development, Chinese congress and government systems have issued series of laws, regulations and principles to regulate and promote the developing process. In addition, China has already set very high aims for greening and sustainable development and promised to the international world that it will achieve the results as scheduled while China participates and contributes quite a lot in international cooperation for sustainable development.
2. There are corresponding training systems to meet the needs for greening training in production sectors. Construction and agriculture, as examples, have their own production criteria for greening and sustainable development, which are of the key contents in the training systems. And the greening and sustainable promotion is in rapid developing route nowadays.
3. In education sector, teachers and students have the awareness of greening more or less. They have recognized the impact of green education for students’ overall development, including interpersonal and intrapersonal competence, their employability, skills for protecting environment, their awareness of life-long learning and low-carbon transition. Some teachers are actively studying the greening concepts and international movement and are trying to embed greening contents in their instructions.

Yet, there are still many problems existing for the greening development, especially in education sector. This survey tells us that education needs to offer more efforts in greening development comparing with production sectors. Firstly, TVET institutions and schools need to modify their understanding of greening and their role in greening development. They should take the responsibility more actively of pushing forward the training of green skills and concepts among all teachers while cooperating with industrial sectors and external providers. Secondly, TVET institutions and schools need to take greening development as a part of their campus culture although they have followed government requirements and have done a lot. They need to root green concepts in students’ mind through lectures, presentations, discussions, promoting activities, experience exchange and so on. Thirdly, more practical and applicable researches need to be emphasized so as to provide hypothesis and suggestions for curriculum development, skill training, work placement and campus activities.

As everyone knows, China is a vast country with unbalanced economy and social development from north to south and from east to west. The above mentioned perspective of the future requires quite a lot of practical work to be carried out. It is not too difficult to make policies, plans and working strategies. The difficult things, in deed, are to carry out practical and efficient work for achieving the aims bit by bit steadily, to change people’s awareness of greening, to involve massive people to offer their own contributions for greening development.

Greening development is a career for majority of people, especially for production sectors and educators. We still have a long way to go and more efforts should be offered jointly both nationally and internationally.

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Citation

Dayue, F. (2016). A survey report on Greening in Higher TVET in China. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-18. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/dayue_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016).

The reform of TVET systems all over the world as well as in Asia is an essential request in a time of fast-change and sustainable development. Securing quality in vocational teacher education plays an important role in achieving the supply of adequately skilled workers in this context. To make sure that vocational teachers have the necessary competencies to fulfil the requirement in the new era and to facilitate the process of vocational teacher education, the professional profile of vocational teaching profession needs to be reviewed and consolidated. On the basis of literature review and considering features of “the greening of technical and vocational education and training”, we propose a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the context of sustainable development. This model represents a system of essential competencies within their cross – influences, based on necessary knowledge, which vocational teachers should acquire or continue to develop throughout their whole careers not only to meet the requirements of profession in fast – change world, but also to contribute to building ecologically sound economies. The model presented in graphical form helping users to capture quickly its key features was established to support the professional development of vocational teaching staff based on clearly defined competencies in accordance with tendency of sustainable development.

Keywords: sustainable development, green skills, VTE, vocational teacher education, pedagogical competence, didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, professional expertise, educating competence, self-reflection competence, dual system

1 The relevance of a model of pedagogical competence for greening TVET

Climate change has had a significant impact on human lives all over the world with many severe consequences such as melting ice, rising sea levels, heat waves, an increase of the number, duration and intensity of tropical storms and droughts, alarming global warming etc. Locating in regions regarded as the workbench of the world, many countries in East and Southeast Asia are suffering from social, economical, and ecological problems caused by climate change. Vietnam is one of the countries, which suffers most from natural catastrophes and climate change. Vietnam Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX Vietnam 2015) shows that Vietnam is suffering from six to seven tropical storms every year on average as a results of climate change; from 1990 to 2010, there were 74 floods in the river systems of Vietnam; severe drought, salinization, landslides, and other natural disasters have been hindering the development of Vietnam (MoRE & UNDP 2015). According to statistics, in the last 50 years, the average annual temperature of Vietnam has increased about 0.5 to 0.7 degrees Celsius. Also over this period, the sea level in Vietnam rose 20 cm. Annually, the damage caused by natural disasters in Vietnam is equivalent to 1.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) (MoRE & DoWRM 2015). Vietnam government has launched some relevant strategies to support green growth, such as becoming the first country in the world releasing a special report (SREX Vietnam 2015) based on framework SREX (Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2012 a,b), establishing Vietnam Panel on Climate Change (VPCC), which includes many leading scientists in field of environmental science in Vietnam, who will give advices on policies and scientific basis to government to gradually enhance climate change adaptation and to build ecologically solid economy. Green economy also requires a highly skilled workforce supplied by high quality vocational education and training system in accordance with tendency of sustainable development. The quality of vocational teacher affects the achievement of vocational learners directly. Therefore, it is important to build a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the world of sustainable development to contribute to building sustainable vocational education and training system not only for Vietnam, but also for other countries in East and Southeast Asia as well as in other regions in the world.

The proposal for a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers aims to:

• provide an instrument to reflect the quality of professional performance of vocational teachers, the quality of vocational teacher education, even the quality of engineer education and training on the basis of a common understanding of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers, especially in era of sustainable development.
• contribute to shaping the initial and in-service vocational teacher education, particularly in setting the objectives of vocational teacher education and training.
• promote the establishment and improvement of policies in terms of technical and vocational education and training (TVET), in particular the policies facilitating the initial establishment and development of TVET dual systems in vocational education and training, as well as the greening of vocational education.
• suggest a tool to vocational teachers to self-evaluate, to control and enhance their competencies as well as to set their professional goals in a rapidly changing world, in which the sustainable development is vital and urgently required.
• contribute a theoretical foundation for further discussions in the field of TVET and to provide a basis which can support the establishment of standards for vocational teacher as well as standards for the vocational teacher education (VTE) in new era.
• consolidating the profile of vocational teaching profession in accordance with the requirement of a sustainable development.

2 The international discussion on competence models in VTE

Through the literature analysis, we considered some theoretical foundations providing the useful knowledge on competencies of teacher in general and of vocational teacher specifically.

Košinár cited the idea of Frey that competences are always solid due to broad knowledge, which is classified by Kunter and other German authors into professional declarative and procedural knowledge (Košinár 2014, 31; Frey 2006, 163; Kunter et al. 2011, 14). Declarative knowledge as mentally propositional represented understanding can be described by semantic networks. Someone is aware of the knowledge and can verbalize it. Procedural knowledge is embodied knowledge: how to do something successfully. Terhart added action routines and forms of reflection to this competence domain, competence of teacher therefore relies on “scientifically sound knowledge, situationally flexible applicable routines, and on specially professional ethics representing the action-guiding standards of value” (Terhart 2000, 55; Košinár 2014, 32; Carle 2002,10). Before that, the famous American educator Shulman classified knowledge of teaching profession into five main dimensions: (1) general pedagogical knowledge relating to broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organization, (2) subject-matter content knowledge, (3) pedagogical content knowledge, (4) curricular knowledge, (5) other knowledge with reference to knowledge of educational context, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational purposes, values and their philosophical, historical grounds (Shulman 1986, 1987; Košinár 2014, 32-33). Other authors added consulting knowledge as the sixth dimension into this classification (Kunter et al. 2011, 29; Košinár 2014, 33).

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1987 in the United State, dedicated to promoting excellence in education) pointed out that professional competence of teacher should comprise:

• “specific declarative and procedural knowledge (competence in the narrower sense: knowledge and skills);
• professional values, beliefs, subjective theories, normative preferences and objectives;
• motivational orientations and metacognitive abilities and skills of professional self-regulation”

(NBPTS 2002, cited by Baumert & Kunter 2006, 481; Hopf 2012, 19)

Baumert, Kunter and their colleagues in framework of their COACTIV-study for PISA 2003 developed a heuristic model of professional competence for teacher, in particular teachers for mathematics, drawn on Schulman’s theory and combined with idea of NBPTS 2002. )The competence of teacher in this model includes personal dispositions (beliefs, values, goals, motivational orientations, self-regulation), knowledge and skills based on five professional knowledge areas (subject-matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical psychological knowledge, knowledge of organization and consulting knowledge), each area is continuously classified into many other facets (Baumert & Kunter 2011, 32; Košinár 2014, 50). This model was adopted, discussed, and even criticized by other authors. The main commentaryarising concentrated on the fact that there is no interconnection between the competence facets, in addition, the concrete relation between these competencies and classroom were not pointed out. (Lehmann-Grube & Nikolaus 2009, 61; Košinár 2014, 50-51).

Some other authors focused on the competence of teachers relating to classroom activities. Bauer (2005) introduced his model “Taxonomy of educational skills” with emphasis on pedagogical basic competence concerning teaching competence including six dimensions: (1) Clarifying of teaching objectives and structuring content; (2) building social structures of classroom; (3) controlling interaction; (4) communicating and informing; (5) designing of learning environments, (6) implementing of background work (planning and organization) (Bauer 2005, 20, Košinár 2014, 51).

Hopf (2012) also built in her dissertation four following competence groups of vocational teacher relating to teaching competence:

(1) Professional competence (Fachkompetenz) refers to the ability of vocational teachers to master the professional knowledge to be learned and taught;

(2) method competence (Methodenkompetenz) refers to abilities of vocational teachers to clearly structure the teaching contents, to clearly build the concrete teaching content, to master the diversity of teaching methods and to give the performance diagnostics;

(3) relational competence (Beziehungskompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to well build and maintain the relationship with vocational learners;

(4) controlling competence (Kontrollkompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to guide the vocational learners. (Hopf 2012, 60-62).

To build four above competence groups, Hopf considered Weinert’s and Klippert’s ideas about competence of teacher. According to Weinert (2000), teachers need four competence areas to have good teaching performance: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) competence of guiding learners in classroom. According to Klippert (2004), teachers need ten following competencies to effectively teach: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) method competence; (5) instruction competence; (6) moderation competence; (7) consulting competence; (8) emotional competence; (9) competence of guiding learners in classroom; (10) cooperation competence.

Nevertheless just competencies concerning teaching ability are not adequate for determining of competence of teacher. It can be noted, that above concepts have not taken the relations between school and social context into consideration yet. Nieke (2012) added this factor when he gave another model, in which the competence of analysis of social context was added. According to Nieke’s model, teacher’s pedagogical competence consist of two parts: professional actions standing in center, including five phases ((1) determining of teaching objectives, (2) analyzing action situation, (3) planning, (4) implementing of teaching action with direct interaction, conveying of teaching content and action in organization, (5) evaluation) based on“background” competencies including competencies of analysis of social context (Gesellschaftsanalyse), self reflexion (Selbstreflexion) and diagnosis of situation (Situationsdiagnose). (Nieke 2012, 51; Košinár 2014, 54). This model of Nieke was appreciated due to the consideration of social context. However, as most of above theories, this structure faced to the commentary, that the interconnection among competencies was not taken into account (Košinár 2014, 53). Besides, the competence of vocational teacher specifically has not been analyzed in a concrete and systematic manner yet.

Soysouvanh and his colleagues, when developing a framework of competence standards of vocational teacher for Lao PDR, sketched five following competence areas: (1) Competence area of Acting in an exemplary manner; (2) competence area of Teaching, (3) competence area of Educating, (4) competence area of Assessment, (5) competence area of Self-Development and Innovation (Soysouvanh et al. 2013). These competence areas were built in consideration of concrete situation of Lao PDR and serve the actual situation in Lao, however can be used as a reference on the way to finding a common understanding of competence of vocational teacher in common sense. While doing their research, Soysouvanh and his colleagues based their research on a broad variety of international scientific literature, one of those is Hartmann’s notion about competence of vocational teachers (Soysouvanh et al. 2013).

In oder to contribute to providing an insight into competences of vocational teachers, Hartmann (2012) thoroughly developed a profile of vocational teacher profession with a diversified description of competences of vocational teachers based on the German experience. In this picture, the competences of vocational teachers were classified into two groups: competences relating to framework conditions and competences relating to professional activity content. In group of competences relating to framework conditions, Hartmann pointed out some relevant competences of vocational teachers, such as:

• analytical competence relates to the ability of vocational teachers to analyze the teaching content, the prerequisites of learners, the institutional teaching environment and the time structure;
• didactic pedagogical competence, which means that vocational teachers must master many diversified teaching methods to apply them appropriately in accordance with institutional conditions of vocational school and teaching objectives;
• negotiation competence, which describes that vocational teachers must be able to cooperate with colleagues to carry out her/his pedagogical duties in the context of school organization and for the common development of school;
• innovation competence refers to the fact that vocational teacher should be able to recognize her/his own needs of advanced training and improve her/his deficits.
• etc.

In group of competences relating to professional activity content, Hartmann emphasized many necessary competencies of vocational teacher, for examples:

• ability to analyse the picture of profession (which is learned and taught) and curriculum;
• ability to choose, structure the teaching content and to determine the teaching procedure in accordance with tendency of competence-oriented teaching as well as in consideration of working and learning places in dual system (cooperation between vocational school and factory/ company);
• ability to capture the fast changing technologies, to grasp processes of work in the real workplaces, to link real work processes with professional learning processes;
• etc.

A series of concrete competencies in each group was presented and discussed in a practical manner, analyzed adequately in detail (see Hartmann 2012, 79-118), that expressed the complexity and diversity of competencies of vocational teacher in real professional context.

Respecting the idea that competence of vocational teacher is still a complex, ill-structured domain facing the fast-change world with the tendency of sustainable development, we suggest a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher with a coherent structure and the clear interconnection among competence areas that might help accommodate this complexity and reach a common understanding of this object for a new era of sustainability in development.

3 Model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher as a basis for VTE with special respect to the Greening of TVET

The proposed model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers builds on the six competency domains, that have the close relations with each other, affect and enhance each other, rely on (or are influence by) the pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge/ skills. An overview of this model is illustrated by the following graphic:

Figure 1: Model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers

More detailed descriptions of all components as well as the interactions among these components in the model are provided in the below section.

A.Six competence domains:

Teaching competence refers to the ability of teachers to carry out theoretical, practical or integrated instruction in the implementation of their teaching duties successfully. Teachers have to be able to determine learning objectives and teaching content on the basis of considering individual properties of vocational learners (e.g. their existing background, their social/ family/ personal characteristics, their needs etc.), as well as on the basis of the philosophy of education and training, the curricula and the corresponding link with the real work processes. Vocational teachers also have to capture, master many different teaching methods, and can choose the appropriate teaching methods for the lesson and the relevant measures for evaluating of learning results in accordance with learning objectives, learning content as well as with the tendency of pupil-centered teaching. Teaching competence also refers to the fact that the teachers can plan lessons, design a suitable and optimized learning and working environment, control and coordinate the learning process in the classroom flexibly, design interesting activities and relevant learning tasks to motivate the vocational learners, manage the learners as well as groups of learners, interact with vocational learners suitably and dominate teaching materials/ media/ tools. The vocational teachers are also expected to be sensible and creative enough to facilitate the learning processes of vocational learners, promote their active learning and their creativity, stimulate their intellectual development and help them in enhancement the professional skills and in achieving their learning goals.

Educating competence relates to the ability of teachers to support the vocational learners to improve their personality traits, e.g.: Through the teaching methods, the advice and the way of organization of work processes / learning processes, teachers can help the vocational learners in establishing the scientific worldview, practicing the discipline style, building awareness of occupational safety, environmental protection, as well as the awareness of saving (saving energy, fuel, material, etc.), the honesty, the cooperation etc. The teacher is also a role model, a good example for the vocational learners in terms of moral virtues such as: honesty, fairness, dependability, responsibility, etc. Especially, nowadays human beings have to face the ongoing climate change as well as risks of health problems and difficulties of living condition due to rapidly changing environmental conditions such as changing precipitation, melting snow and ice, altered hydrological systems and water resources, the warming and local changes in temperature etc. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – IPCC 2014, 4,6) as the consequences of human activities altering the atmospheric composition, that is the pressing issue of our time. The alarming climate change like the global warming requires the solutions urgently, and it can be noted that today sustainable development plays a very important role in all fields of the life including TVET. For this reason, it must be emphasized that vocational teachers in general and the technical vocational teachers in particular have to take responsibility to educate the vocational learners about the awareness of environmental protection. This competence should be considered as an important competence of vocational teachers nowadays and should be compiled and emphasized in professional profile of vocational teacher profession. The teachers should introduce the vocational learners to the environmentally friendly production processes and environmentally friendly technologies. It requires the modern, progressive knowledge and skills in terms of professional expertise of vocational teachers. The teachers must therefore always update and evolve their knowledge and skills, capture the changing technologies in order to be able to implement this educating duty. Additionally, it may be noted that the educating processes take place through the teaching processes/ during the teaching processes. That is why the educating competence has the close connection with the teaching competence, communicative and language competence, and other competencies, in particular with professional expertise.

Professional expertise/ professional competence concerns the abilities of teachers to master the subject-matter content/ scientific and occupational content, to keep it up to date and to use it appropriately, adequately within the classroom. Knowledge and skills differ greatly between professional fields, and vocational teachers must possess the deep knowledge and solid skills of the occupational field in which they teach in the flow of technology changes. Professional expertise is critically important to vocational teachers because the fact that vocational teachers have inadequate fundamentals of content knowledge and work skills definitely leads to the fact of providing the labour market with insufficiently skilled workers. For that reason, the vocational teachers should constantly develop their professional competence, in this case, the competence of self-reflection and improving qualifications and competence of linking real work processes with the professional learning processes along with knowledge on methodology of scientific research are very necessary and useful for the teachers to consolidate and expand their expertise. And the expertise certainly affects on the teaching competence and on educating competence, for example, if the teacher wants to educate the vocational pupils/ students about the awareness of environmental protection, it requires the specialized knowledge, skills in terms of environmentally friendly technologies, or when a vocational teacher wants to carry out a lesson, he/ she must coordinate the technical occupational content, so he/she definitely needs the expertise beyond teaching skills. So it can be stated that the professional expertise / professional competence is tightly connected with other competencies: it supports greatly other competencies and is strengthened by other competencies. Furthermore, nowadays humans have to cope with the quick-change world, the technology is changing rapidly, the industrialization occurs in many regions all over the world, especially in developing countries as well as in Asia, causes the environmental and health problems not also in Asia but also throughout the world, so it requires that the vocational teachers be able to keep their expertise up to date in the flow of technology changes, capture the new technologies, especially green technologies regarding renewable energies as well as green solutions for occupation to be learned and taught to contribute to environment protection and sustainable development.

In a broader sense, considering professional expertise as a critically vital competence of vocational teachers to compile and emphasize this competence in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession can also contribute to promoting of establishing the relevant policies relating to the investment for TVET field including adequate providing of modern machines, instruments, equipment for vocational schools, as well as increasing of vocational teachers’ salary in many countries, especially in developing countries with emerging economies and institutional voids. As we know, with low wages and obsolete equipment making vocational teachers lack appropriate experience, it is so difficult for vocational teachers to improve their expertise and to catch up new technologies.

Competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes describes the ability of teachers to integrate real work processes into vocational learning processes. It requires vocational teachers to consider the cooperative learning places and the content of the curriculum, which should contain vocational knowledge and skills in a practical manner. Teachers need to understand the processes of work in the real workplaces (factories, companies, businesses etc.) and be able to analyze the work processes. They need knowledge of job/work analysis in the field of vocational education and curriculum development. On the basis o results of job/work analysis, the teachers choose appropriate contents for curriculum and design the learning tasks in accordance with work duties, work tasks for vocational learners. In addition, teachers must try to find the possibilities of cooperation with other learning places beyond vocational school such as companies/ factories and try to exploit the chances of in-company training with these possibilities of cooperation. They also can use the opportunities of cooperation with colleagues from the other learning places. In countries that have the dual system in vocational training, such as Germany, it is easier for the teachers to find the cooperation with other factories/ companies, but in many other countries, particularly in developing countries (such as Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia etc. .), where there is no dual system, it requires the vocational teachers to make efforts to find the possibilities of cooperation with other factories / businesses/ companies. For this reason, the vocational teachers need to have the communicative competence and the flexibility to establish the personal relationships as well as the working relationships with colleagues in other working and learning places, with people in co-partners (companies, factories).In fact, there is a pressing issue in TVET field in developing countries, that the TVET graduates often have skill shortages or inappropriate skills and have to be trained again by the employer units. To contribute to shaking off this status, the competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes of vocational teachers needs to be added, compiled in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession. When the teachers possess this competence, they can help vocational learners acquire real skills or necessary work experience to meet the needs of employers and catch up new technologies in the companies/ factories, especially when the industrial companies nowadays constantly upgrade their technologies and have tendency to become environmentally friendly to attain the goal of sustainable development. With competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes, the vocational teachers are able to contribute not only to supplying the adequately qualified workers for recruitment, but also to promoting the dual system in their country. This competence also supports, consolidates professional expertise (professional competence), teaching competence and helps teachers constantly review the status of occupation to be learned and taught in flow of fastly rearranged work processes, update their knowledge and skills and through that, enhance their competence of  self-reflection and improving qualification.

Communicative and language competence involves the ability of teachers to use language and communicative skills to convey the learning content logically and attractively, to convince and to advice the vocational learners to educate them as well as to help them in learning processes, to moderate in the organization of open learning processes, to communicate effectively with parents of learners, with the colleagues as well as with the local and international co-partners (companies, factories, other vocational schools, regional or international organizations). This competence is an especially important competence for a teacher including the vocational teacher, because teachers always have to interact with other people/stakeholders (e.g. trainees, colleagues, businesses, factories, social services etc.). The interaction with the vocational learners happens in the process of conveying learning contents, controlling the classroom, consulting the learners. The communicative and language competence, therefore, supports the teaching competence and educating competence greatly. Knowledge of professional educational psychology and didactics along with the competence of self-reflection is very useful for the vocational teachers in improving this competence. In addition, the organization of teaching as well as the concrete curriculum is often determined in a collaboration with colleagues, in other words, in agreement with teaching staff, so the vocational teacher should be able to interact effectively with colleagues to co-make decisions and to share the instructional strategies to each other. The cooperation with other learning places (businesses, factories, companies) to link real work processes with professional learning processes also requires the negotiation skill of the vocational teachers. In a broader sense, nowadays the tendency of global cooperation plays a relevant role in all fields including TVET, for that, the vocational teachers should be able to use foreign languages besides communication skills to join in the international projects as well as to have international cooperative relationships to exchange the experiences and information, especially information about the technology changes as well as the new environmentally friendly technologies in field of TVET, through that they can improve their professional expertise. Thus, it can be stated that the communicative and language competence makes impacts on other competencies (in particular directly on the teaching competence and educating competence) and the vocational teachers need this competence to carry out their professional duties.

Competence of self-reflection and improving the qualifications refers to the abilities of teachers to reflect their own professional performance, the self-images, the professional goals, the professional ethics and/in order to improve the qualifications and professional quality. Vocational teachers should reflect on one’s own teaching result on the basis of analyzing and interpreting the pupils learning outcomes and the external results of the evaluations. Teachers should constantly control their professional competence (professional expertise), teaching competence, educating competence, communicative and language competence, competence of linking real  work processes with professional learning processes to improve these competencies during the process of execution of professional duties. They have to practice continuously and keep themselves up to date on new pedagogical theories, new technologies, especially the environmentally friendly technologies, as well as on the world of work. Lifelong learning is unavoidable task of vocational teachers, especially technical vocational teachers.

According to the above analysis, it can be stated that the pedagogical competence of vocational teachers is produced by the connection of all above networked competency domains that make impacts on each other and develop their effects with each other. These competency domains are based on (or influenced by) the below pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge and skills.

B. Educational basic knowledge:

Didactics (knowledge of teaching and learning process) supplies the deep knowledge of teaching objectives along with strategies of lesson planning, teaching contents, teaching methods (including concepts, concrete methods and teaching techniques), teaching materials, media, measures and processes of evaluation/ assessment, as well as the knowledge of learning process (learning theories, cognitive development, learning motivation, etc.).

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) relates to the application of didactics and pedagogical knowledge for teaching of a particular subject/ discipline/ occupation in consideration of the characteristics of this subject/ discipline/ occupation as well as the prior knowledge of learners and other matters of teaching and learning such as diversified teaching strategies, curriculum, instructional materials etc. PCK is compatible with Shulman’s theory (1986) about how the teacher can transform the subject matter into teaching (Schulman 1986; Koehler, Mishra 2009; Košinár 2014), but it should be emphasized, that this PCK relies not only on characteristics of scientific discipline but also on characteristics of vocational field.

Curricular knowledge refers to teacher’s deep knowledge not also about choosing and compiling of teaching program and teaching materials (Shulman 1986, Košinár 2014), but also about the developing vocational curriculum in consideration of the relationships between a vocational field and other relevant vocational fields, especially based on job analysis (also known as work analysis) accomplished by many different methods, such as DACUM (Collum 1985), observation of workers’ performance, interview and procedural review (Cascio &Aguinis 2005; Wilson 2007),job analysis worksheets; surveys, work assessments, JASP (Hartley, 1999) etc.

Pedagogical foundations and psychology cover the understanding of the philosophy of education and training; the intercultural, historical, sociological knowledge in terms of education; pedagogical psychology (developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, work psychology, features of trainees, features of vocational teachers such as ethics, skills, mission, interests, etc.), and consulting knowledge.

C. The additional knowledge and/or skills

Methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research: can help vocational teachers in doing research to improve their expertise.

Work – Technology – Education: provides theoretical basis in terms of relationships between work, technology and education.

Teaching technology: relates to knowledge and skills to teach with technology, from low-tech tools to high-tech tools such as presentation software, online learning etc.

etc.

The additional knowledge can be added and expanded according to the needs in reality.

4 Implications for the development of TVET-systems as a basis for the enhancement of the Greening

Technical vocational teachers contribute to producing worker resource in technical fields. The industrial wastes, the emission from obsolete technologies and the use of fossil fuels cause many serious environmental problems, so when the technical workers do not master new technologies and cannot operate their job in an environmentally friendly manner, they can contribute to causing environment pollution and climate change. Therefore, the training of highly skilled workforce with adequate capabilities and perception of protecting environment is very necessary. This goal cannot be achieved without eligible vocational teachers because the quality of vocational teachers affects the attainment of vocational learners directly. Along with above suggested model, some following initial implications at macro, meso and micro level are offered:

4.1 In terms of policies

At macro level, the governments should have the appropriate public funding for vocational education and training because vocational education plays a significant role when society today needs not only elite school but also mass school. This investment should include increasing vocational teacher’s salary (especially in developing countries, where the vocational teachers often do not have motivation to improve their competencies due to low salary which does not meet the needs of their life) to draw talented people into the field of vocational teaching, providing modern machines, equipments for vocational schools to facilitate efficient work regarding green technologies, renewable energy, new material etc. In addition, in developing countries, it is necessary to have efforts to improve institutional voids to compel industrial companies to comply with regulations regarding environment protection and to encourage these companies to cooperate with vocational schools to gradually build the dual system in field of TVET.

4.2 In terms of scientific research in vocational education

Using knowledge of methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research (mentioned as additional knowledge/skills in the above suggested model), the vocational teachers should do research in their subject frequently, besides carrying out their teaching duties, to master the up-to-date technologies with solutions of saving energy, protecting environment. On the other hand, the positive results of scientific research (at the companies, at the universities, in the institutes, etc.) regarding the green technology need to be transferred into vocational schools and the vocational teachers need to be coached based on these results of scientific research.

4.3 In terms of school administration and organization

School administrators should support vocational teachers to enhance their effective performance through providing them more pedagogical autonomy, helping them find relationship with companies/ factories on behalf of school/ institution, giving them opportunities/conditions to upgrade their expertise (for example: organizing professional advanced courses for frequently training vocational teachers, expanding the domestic and international cooperation so that vocational teachers have chances to update and exchange knowledge and experience of new technologies, especially environmentally friendly technologies, equipping with modern machinery as much as possible to facilitate process of working and cultivating of teachers etc.). Each vocational school should make efforts to build eligibility criteria to recruit teachers as well as to build accordant systems to control teacher’s competences, e.g. through feedback from pupils/ students, from enterprises or through controlling out-come quality. In addition, to organize competitions, movements and conferences regarding green technology and sustainable development in field of vocational teaching should be appreciated and expanded.

4.4 In terms of vocational teacher education

Applying the suggested model of competences with strengthened structure as an instrument, vocational teachers in the present era should be aware of their essential competences in order to be effective in the classroom as well as to fulfill new requirements of vocational teaching profession in the rapidly changing world in which the tendency of sustainable development is critical and unavoidable. With an insight into necessary competences, which they should or must acquire, vocational teachers should have cognizance of their own duties and responsibilities, when facing the world with fatal climate change and global warming. They should constantly self – reflect their performance to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses among the six stated competency domains to promote the strengths and improve the weaknesses to pursue their career professionally. They should commit themselves to cultivating six stated competence domains to ensure necessary capabilities to carry out their duties adequately. In vocational teacher education, the setting of training objectives should be implemented based on the accordant understanding of required competences of vocational teachers in a world of sustainable development.

4.5 In terms of engineer education and training

Securing the quality of engineer education is very significant, because vocational teachers cannot implement their main duties (teaching and educating) without their expertise, in particular when green technologies always require updated knowledge and skills from vocational teachers. Therefore, measures to ensure the quality of training engineers at technical universities should be built and strengthened. On the other hand, in engineer education as well as vocational teacher education and training, factors “life-long learning”, “learning of learning methods” and “scientific research methodology” should be taken into account in context of the fact that knowledge of human beings develops rapidly every day. The combination of professional expertise, pedagogical competencies and awareness of duties and responsibilities concerning environment protection will help vocational teachers promote their roles in their profession adequately.

4.6 In terms of cooperation of learning venues

Building the dual system in field of TVET is very necessary to improve the negative image of TVET in East and Southeast Asia, where the TVET graduates must be often trained again by the employers due to the lack of experience and due to the inadequate curriculum, which often has no relation with real work processes. The cooperation of vocational schools and companies will help not only the vocational learners, but also the vocational teachers in improving their competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes. The building of dual system cannot be based only on the effort of individual vocational teacher, but it also needs the support from policy system, from the strategies of school administration.

4.7 In terms of development of curriculum, development of learning materials and development of assessment materials

The curriculum for VTE needs to be compiled in respect of the green skills of vocational teachers with their cross – influences. Due to the interweaving and the ongoing interaction between these competences in a strong structure, it is required to have the certain unification in terms of content regarding the greening on different subjects (didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, curriculum development, pedagogical psychology etc.). For example:

• On the subject of vocational pedagogical psychology, it is essential to emphasize the roles and the interaction of the above suggested green skills when discussing features of vocational teachers;
• On the subject of didactics or pedagogical content knowledge, it is necessary to mention the greening when discussing learning objectives, learning contents, teaching methods, learning evaluations: (1) Learning objectives: It is relevant to discuss, which learning objectives (in terms of knowledge, in terms of skills, in terms of awareness) regarding the greening that the vocational learners should achieve; (2) Learning contents: It is essential to emphasize, how important it is, when the up-to-date technologies with the solutions of saving energy and environmental protection are conveyed as learning contents for vocational learners; (3) Teaching methods: Besides of discussing general teaching methods in education, it is also interesting and actual to discuss, which teaching forms could be used to wake the awareness of environmental protection of the vocational learners up; (4) Learning evaluations: Besides of discussing the forms and criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding expertise as the observable and measurable behaviors of vocational learners (the first factor), it is necessary to discuss the forms or criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding the greening (the second factor) of vocational learners. The development of assessment materials for vocational learners, which integrate two mentioned factors, is also a relevant theme for educators in the present era of sustainable development.
• On the subject of vocational curriculum development: The vocational teachers need to be conveyed the method to develop the vocational curriculum based on the results of job/ work analysis in respect of modern technology with solutions of saving energy and environmental protection in this occupation. The learning materials for vocational learners also need to be compiled based on this spirit.

5 Conclusion

In Vietnam, the awareness of environmental protection is rather low and the sector of green economy is still small. Now, there are neither the green occupations nor the requirements of green skills for green occupations in Vietnam (TVET-Vietnam Organization 2015). However, Vietnamese government has launched the Green Growth Strategy to deal with the environmental and socio-economic challenges towards sustainable development, in which, the Greening TVET is held for an important issue to develop an adequate workforce with green skills to meet the requirements of Green economy development. A series of activities on “Greening TVET” in the frame of the Vietnamese – German Programme Reform of TVET in Vietnam took place, e.g.: “Greening TVET” at the Green-Biz 2013 exhibition; The International Leadership Training (ILT) on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Job”; Seven Vietnamese young professionals graduated from GIZ-supported training on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Jobs”; “Green TVET” on a mission; Green skills development – essential for the transition to green growth; etc. (TVET – Vietnam Organization, 2015). It can be stated, that the Green Skills development for the existing occupations and for new occupations in Vietnam as well as in other countries in East and Southeast Asia is very crucial. The suggested model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers for greening TVET and the above initial recommendations could contribute to consolidating the professional profile of vocational teaching occupation and to process of Green Skills development in the field of TVET.

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Citation

Diep, P.C. & Hartmann, M. (2016). Green Skills in Vocational Teacher Education – a model of pedagogical competence for a world of sustainable development. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-19. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/diep_hartmann_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016)

This article proposes a change of perspective on TVET in Asia in the context of the current discourse on sustainable development and the greening of economies in the region. It picks up on the debate around the greening of TVET, taking a closer look at the challenges faced by two countries: the Philippines and Vietnam. A necessary repositioning of TVET, and especially the greening of TVET, is suggested through an exploration of agriculture and manufacturing–two industries that traditionally account for most of the labour force in Asia and which, at the same time, are among the biggest environmental polluters. We highlight the need for non-formal, on-the-job training in the plant and in the field and for the inclusion of traditional industries, the main polluters, in the discussion on the greening of industries. A case is made for a practical, non-academic approach to training that closely links the demands of the market with the non-formal learning needs of ordinary workers and farmers. Based on best-practices, this article introduces the concept of an integrated service called “WeTrace” that contributes to the greening of TVET through a hands-on, field-based approach. The article provides an overview of practical experiences with the implementation of WeTrace and strategies for non-formal learning supported by smart technology, as applied to sustainable agriculture in the Philippines and Vietnam.

Keywords: green economy, green skills, sustainable development, supply and value chain, unskilled and semi-skilled workers, farmers, agriculture and food production, traceability, standards, smart technology

1 Introduction

Just before the 2015 United Nation Climate Change Conference in Paris, the headline of China Daily “Asia faces catastrophic future unless leaders at Paris summit agree to cut emissions” (China Daily 2015, 1) proclaimed a clear message emphasizing the urgent need for action. In acknowledging that urgency, this article examines some options for action in the greening of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in Asia. Of note, UNESCO-UNVEVOC has been engaged in recent efforts to strengthen TVET in the Asiatic region, developing the skills and knowledge required for the transition to greener economies and  societies (UNESCO 2015). It promises to be a long road, and not without obstacles along the way.

Despite the global discussions, the efforts of policy makers, the support of international development programs, the investment of international companies in select projects (such as renewables, effluent systems, or solid waste management), the fact remains that most young people employed in the developing and future markets of Asia are unskilled or under-qualified and often without access to training. How can we integrate that major pool of labour force for the challenge of greening TVET on a larger scale? This article not only tackles this issue, but offers a different perspective on the greening of TVET by highlighting the approaches of industrial sectors which often appear resistant to change. The targets formulated in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN 2015) should not be limited to the greening of formal credentials in technical education. Perhaps even more important is the embedding of green skills across all industrial processes through strategies for life-long or continuous learning.The development of a robust TVET system in Asia is still ongoing, but driven by global needs there is increasing pressure to address training for sustainable development that includes not a minority, but the majority of those involved in economic production.

2 Skills and TVET for sustainable development

2.1 Green economy, skills development and TVET

The debate on greening TVET stems from the sustainable development agenda and is linked with the concept of a “green economy”. Whereas there are many proposed definitions for the term green economy, they all emphasize responsible economic practices that support further economic growth and positive social development, while valuing and handling natural resources responsibly.

Since 2008 the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has supported the agenda of a green economy. Its Green Economy Initiative defines a:

“[…] green economy as one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive.

Practically speaking, a green economy is one whose growth in income and employment is driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These investments need to be catalysed and supported by targeted public expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes.”(UNEP 2015)

The TVET sector has the capacity to leverage employment opportunities and economic productivity, competitiveness and quality as well as meeting the challenges of economic change and development (Montague 2013, 210). According to the UNEP characteristics of a green economy, a TVET system should incorporate environmental protection as well as resource efficiency, risk management and social inclusion. As the Asian economies are still striving for stable development and increased industrialisation, the adoption of a green economy and green TVET-systems must be based  on the principle of “growing cleaner without growing slower” (Jagannathan 2013, 266). Such changes have unprecedented consequences for teacher training, curricula and training methods.

Notable milestones in the discourse on sustainable development, the greening of the economy and the implications for TVET include the Brundtland Report (laying the foundations of the sustainable development era), the UN Agenda 21 and the Rio+ Conferences, and the decision of the General Assembly of the United Nations to declare the years 2005 – 2014 as the UN Decade for Sustainable Development (BMZ 2013, 28). UNESCO and UNEVOC, the United Nations agencies responsible for setting a global direction and facilitating consensus for education and training, stated in their 2004 Bonn declaration: “since education is considered the key to effective development strategies, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) must be the master key that can alleviate poverty, promote peace, conserve the environment, improve the quality of life for all and help achieve sustainable development.” (UNESCO/UNEVOC 2004, 1)

This statement pointedly emphasises the significance of quality technical and vocational education and training for individuals, businesses and societies. A well-planned and well-implemented TVET system extends its influence into the social, economic and the ecological spheres. As such, the distinction that is often made between education and TVET for sustainable development (ESD/TVETSD) on the one hand, and green education or green TVET on the other hand, is considered an artificial one. Both concepts serve the higher purpose of a more sustainable future. Hence we use the terms interchangeably, as does the TVET expert and Head of the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training Shyamal Majumdar (Majumdar 2010).

2.2 Skill shortages versus need for green skills in TVET

Asian countries, especially those in Southeast Asia, with highly dynamic economies, are being challenged in their position as global powerhouses of production by the practical implications of greening those economies. For many years, massive expansion and exploitation of natural resources have improved their economic performance. However, now they, like the rest of the world, are facing the consequences of pollution, production methods that pose health hazards and ecological harm, and unrestrained growth (JFien et al. 2013, 255f.). They no longer just need to provide the necessary manpower to meet production demands of a globalised market, but also need to catch up on quality requirements, production standards and legal compliance frameworks that are increasingly reforming the exchange of goods and services. They are also under pressure to prepare themselves for the risks of climate change as well as develop strategies for more resilient economic and social systems. In order to accommodate all this, these countries need to redefine and rework their educational systems. This especially applies to their technical and vocational education and training, if they want to retain and improve their competitive position in the global market and contribute to a greener economy.

The movement towards a greener economy will undoubtedly change the labour market. While further advances in green technology and efficient automation, or the elimination of high-emission/pollution industries may result in the demise of many jobs and professions, other jobs will need to be modified. Existing jobs may need a broader set of sustainability and greener skills and practices, or require ‘up-skilling’. New jobs may need to be created to achieve a greening of societies and industry sectors (Majumdar 2011).

In this paper, we adopt a holistic definition of green skills: “What is meant here are skills, abilities and the willingness to recognise and to assess the direct and indirect effects of occupational activities on the environment as well as on the living and working conditions of other human beings (of present and future generations) and to avoid negative effects as much as possible.” (BMZ 2013, 28)

Many publications on the greening of TVET focus on qualifications that need to be acquired through academic careers, higher education in the engineering disciplines, or jobs that require so-called “high-skilled” workers with several years of intensive training. This focus aligns with the general current high cultural and societal value placed on tertiary education as compared to vocational education or apprenticeship. We suggest that the focus be shifted towards a broader and more inclusive definition of global labour. The TVET community needs to promote awareness of the demand for sustainability and green skills, and not only in new professions like the bio-energy sector. In every industry or production cycle, natural resources and chemical inputs are used, and emissions and wastes generated—in growing vegetables, manufacturing shoes, or construction. Each worker engaged in these value chains, regardless of their educational level, has an impact on the production and consumption cycle. High-level policies, strategic plans, or innovative technologies will not have the impact hoped for, unless the workers on the ground have acquired the necessary green skills to put these ideas into practice. Without this capacity for change, the skills shortages of today become the skills gaps of tomorrow (Montague 2013, 209f; 219f)

This article focuses on the labour force in Vietnam and the Philippines, which consists to a large extent of workers in manufacturing and agriculture (PH – agriculture: 30%, industry: 16%; VN – agriculture: 48%, industry: 21% (CIA 2015)). Only a small percentage of these workers have received comprehensive formal education and training. Most, are so-called unskilled and semi-skilled workers, or workers who achieved their skills through informal or non-formal education and training while on the job or outside the workplace (Martinez-Fernandez et al 2013, 166f). These people are also among those who most feel the negative impacts of unsustainable production practices. In their workplace they might be confronted with the overuse of chemicals jeopardising their health, or on their farms and fields their livelihood is threatened by soil erosion or recurring floods.

For these target groups the most likely starting point in skill transformation will be enhancing and expanding their existing work skills through knowledge transfer and practical training. This might focus on new work routines that have a positive effect on their livelihood and, on the larger scale, contribute to a green economy and sustainable development. Although this approach may seem  very basic or detail-oriented, small changes in everyday work practice for all employees in a company, or on a farm, will cumulatively build towards a whole new core of sustainability practices, not only in individual businesses, but in the supply chains fed by these workers and producers through their labour. These new capabilities will, for example, entail different practices in the handling and use of chemicals, different routines for waste management or increased attention to safety and health protection in daily work activities. In agriculture, for example, this might also include adjusted protocols for soil protection, or the choice of seeds and crops that are more resilient to changing climatic conditions. For each area of skill development, the initial first step towards long-term greening is always to first raise awareness as to where existing practices intersect with matters of sustainable production and consumption, as well as building a sense of ethical behaviour and responsibility for one’s own environment and that of the community. Then it is possible to build on this and train for technical skills in the actual production process.

To summarise:

• TVET iskey to implementing a global greening concept based on national strategies for industry
• New green and greener skills are urgently needed for bothmodern technical and traditional sectors
• The goals are ambitious, but there are significant opportunities for the personal and professional development of the individual in the workforce.

3 Challenges of greening TVET in Southeast Asia

3.1 Background for greening TVET in the Philippines and Vietnam

While the global community is beginning to realise the need for green vocational skills and greener TVET systems and curricula, these systems and their affiliated institutions face problems regarding the quality, financing and accessibility of skill development for all citizens. One challenge is that of incorporating new green educational goals into already strained education systems (BMZ 2013, 30). This may require redefinition and augmentation of existing curricula and qualifications; creating extended curricula or developing completely new ones for existing jobs, and even defining new vocational qualifications for new green jobs created as part of a modernisation strategy for a specific industry, or the economy at large. These challenges apply equally to all the diverse forms of vocational education and training including formal TVET schools, technical colleges, training in the workplace, apprenticeships and other informal and non-formal settings (Maclean et al. 2013, 5ff.).

The challenge is how best to align the required changes and developments in TVET with national sustainability strategies. The authors focus on the Philippines and Vietnam as case studies. Each country has adopted its own policies and strategies; having committed themselves more than 20 years ago to the UN Agenda 21. They have also each set their own strategy for a national path towards sustainable development. Vietnam adopted its newest “National Green Growth Strategy” in 2012. The Philippines addressed their plans for a greener future in their 1990 “Philippines strategy for sustainable development (PSSD)” supplemented in 2004 with their “Enhanced Philippine Agenda 21 (EPA)”. Although these, and many more policies and agendas, are in place regarding sustainability in both national development plans and economic strategies, the current state of the environment, economy and education of the countries does not reflect these theoretical and strategic inputs. Both countries are experiencing significant problems regarding environmental issues (e.g., air pollution in the megacity Manila, water contamination in the Mekong delta, landslides, coastal erosion and floods). As compared to the Philippines, Vietnam has been on a more steady path to growth and a stable economic outlook, but both countries still face major challenges like inflation, underemployment and comparatively low gross national income per capita (CIA 2015; UNDP 2014). To tackle these challenges, section 4 of this article proposes a “walk the talk” approach for greening that targets the unskilled and semi-skilled labour forces in the main production sectors, agriculture and manufacturing, in both Asian countries.

3.2 The interrelationship between greening TVET and the economy in Vietnam and the Philippines

The rapid development of economies in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has resulted in the necessity of permanent, economic, structural change and a great need for a highly-qualified skilled labour force. The association of these countries into a single common market not only affects more than 600 million people, it is one of the most outstanding and challenging events in the history of the region. The ASEAN motto “One Vision, One Caring and One Sharing Community” reflects the willingness of this community of states to co-operate politically and economically. One of the three pillars of ASEAN is the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), the goal of which is to transform ASEAN into a single market and single production base by the end of 2015. One of its main objectives is to increase the mobility of skilled labour in the region by co-operating in three main areas: a) the recognition of professional qualifications, b) regional human resource development and capacity building, and c) the integration of industries across the region to promote regional sourcing (Kunz 2014).

At the plant and at the field level, there have also been significant changes. In the last two decades Vietnam has achieved remarkable poverty reduction and economic growth mainly through mass production industries such as apparel, shoes, and assembly of appliances—industries  that require a lower-skilled labour force. Now facing the transformation from mass, to quality production, Vietnam claims a shortage in skilled labour, mainly in technical jobs. Only 19% of workers have received any form of job training, only 6% have an apprenticeship of at least two years. Almost 24 million workers (around 80% of the workforce) are low-skilled or unskilled in Vietnam. Seven million people – more than 20% of the economically active population – work in the original green sector, agriculture (ADB 2014).

Food production is both a global concern as well as a global, interconnected market. By 2050 the world needs not only to produce 40 – 70% more food on the same surface of agricultural land, but adapt to the additional threat of climate change. The Philippines are already one of the most affected countries in this regard. In addition, the nation has no functional strategy on food security as compared to Vietnam and other ASEAN countries. Up to 40% of the economic population works in this primary sector which contributes only 10% to the national GDP. Small landholders farm an average of one hectare. In Europe, where only 3% work in this sector, farmers cultivate an average of 26 hectares.

Since the 1990s the Philippine archipelago has seen significant growth in the service sector. In addition it has approximately 10 million Filipinos registered as overseas workers. Most of them are skilled, even having tertiary education, but cannot find job opportunities in the Philippines. This brain-drain (Alburo & Abella2002) is related less to the so-called phenomena of over-population, and more to political and economic strategies resulting in limited work opportunities.

So how do these scenarios affect TVET in the ASEAN region? Of course, TVET plays an important role in enabling regional socio-economic development. Countries are in the process of strengthening and reforming TVET to meet the demands of economic growth and competitiveness, as well as societal change. Policy development is one critical aspect in repositioning TVET and further developing its responsiveness to the greening agenda. However, it is difficult to compare TVET systems across jurisdictions as shown in the example of Vietnam and the Philippines. Not only are there different political agendas, but the collection of empirical evidence for comparative analysis is difficult. As a result, it is not easy to formulate a common strategy and vision among ASEAN countries for the reform of TVET.

For example, it has often been questioned as to whether it is easier to establish a new green job profile, such as for solar, wind or biomass technology, rather than greening existing curricula, such as that for agriculture or the textile industry. Given the outcomes of the climate change summit in Paris 2015, there is no doubt that clean/renewable energy topics are a matter of some urgency and need to be introduced into current TVET systems. To assist in this process, international organisations such as UNESCO, UNEVOC and other development agencies are developing strategies to help build awareness and capacity in TVET. As a result, Vietnam has started to invest in new technologies and is collaborating with international companies to jointly introduce green technologies to the market. At the same time, government training institutions are adopting new greener technologies and a focus on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) as a foundation for technologies is helping to pave the way for expansion in the technical green sector. In contrast, in the Philippines, the implementation of new green technologies is limited by the poor quality of training facilities and weak labour market intelligence. Furthermore, the low quality and lack of relevance of TVET, particularly for school-based and privately-run programmes (UNEVOC 2014), is a limiting factor. Thus between the two countries, TVET in Vietnam is viewed as more credible due to its investment in the engineering of technical products. In contrast, the strong service sector in the Philippines, including the booming ICT industry, has mostly recruited graduates from tertiary education. There are certain small initiatives in green technology and related qualifications, but these activities make up only a small percentage of TVET activity and niche markets.

Different approaches to greening are also apparent in the context of environmental compliance in mass production, such as the apparel or the shoe sector, as well as in the movement to sustainable agriculture. As a result of the shift of the Chinese apparel industry to Vietnam, the country has started to review its environmental policy in order to remain competitive (Greer 2014). Textile dyeing and finishing have a significant environmental impact. The Philippines has only a small number of apparel and shoe producers today as compared to the boom in the eighties and nineties when China took over with its then, low wage policies. Of necessity, the demand in global trade for cleaner production is rising, but both industry and trade have been slow to respond, and for almost two decades practices have been found wanting. Today, greener production practices are becoming a competitive advantage and need to be embedded in TVET as a cross-sectoral subject. The question for low and unskilled workers in the ASEAN region is: how to best train them? Outside or inside the TVET system?

That results into the following findings:

• There is a common vision for the greening of TVET in ASEAN countries, but the respective implementation strategies differ.
• The level of greening in TVET depends on the particular economic dynamics and structure in a given jurisdiction.
• The greening process in farming and the textile and shoe industry is still marginalized, despite the fact that it is the source of livelihood for the majority of the population.

4 The challenge of green skill development in ASEAN

Criticism of the TVET sector by industry is not uncommon. Training centres are slow to respond to new requirements and higher standards for training and education. Communication and collaboration between the TVET sector and industry needs to improve significantly to resolve these differences. As stated, introducing new green technical innovation needs substantively modified, or new curricula and this adaptation will be a challenge for TVET.

As noted, the majority of workers and farmers who still dominate the labour market in total figures work in industries characterised by low technical skill and/or low wages. Both the manufacturing and agriculture sectors have a heavy environmental impact through pollution of eco-systems, and training and education to mitigate these impacts is still limited. Despite the introduction of numerous new standards and initiatives through global trade and industry, as well as the impetus of Rio in 1992 and cumulated knowledge around climate change, real progress in moving towards cleaner production processes has already taken too long. The external pressure to implement best practices is still insufficient to effect real change. 

Yet small, incremental changes are possible through education reform. Environmental and social compliance for the apparel industry does not require scientific knowledge for workers, but rather a systematic approach to implementing new standards in every-day practice. In this process, non-formal education is often neglected; however, it is appropriate in meeting the identified training needs of workers and farmers. Workers need to be trained on-the-job in their own working environment following a methodological-didactical approach that best relates to their learning abilities as well as addressing the issues of access and costs. The learning process must permeate the entire value chain in order to build understanding of the interdependencies and causality of different actions and environmental impacts. It is not only automation and internalization of manufacturing procedures that need to be addressed, but also the move towards full traceability, in order to verify compliance with environmental regulations at every step in the production process. Despite Western-driven trade and industry groups promoting their ‘best’ practices, the highly industrialised countries have not followed up on their promise of greener and more transparent production. Asia has the opportunity of not only avoiding their mistakes, but modelling ‘next’ practices after the environmental depletion of the last twenty years.

At that state of discussion it makes sense to review the historic dimension of greening. The Western industrialised world has developed a lot of best practice green solutions and renewable energy technology in the last two decades, but it has also not learned from its failures. In 1972 the Club of Rome expressed in its publication “The limits of growth” that human activities could grow large enough to alter basic natural processes of the globe. Today we routinely observe, acknowledge, and discuss the ozone hole, destruction of marine fish stocks, climate change and other global problems (Meadow 2004). After more than 40 years, the West has to conclude that the prediction of 1972 was correct. Given this, there is no alternative – neither in Asia, nor in Europe, nor America – to facilitating green and sustainable development as a holistic concept. Innovative forms of TVET could be the vehicle for knowledge transfer that contributes to a better future.    

5 Best practice example in agriculture

The German company, Knowledge Intelligence Applications GmbH (KIAG), has started to share its industry experience to the benefit of the agriculture and textile industries in emerging and developing markets. With the support of German public-private partnerships including KfW/DEG, sequa and KIAG, the WeTrace initiative (www.wetrace.org) is presented here as a best practice solution to demonstrate how smart technology can be linked with non-formal education and training; in this instance, for innovation in agriculture. Two case studies are explored here that illustrate the comparative differences between two ASEAN countries through documentation of their individual strategies and intentions in implementing policies for green agriculture.

Everybody depends on agriculture. It feeds our entire population and produces fibre for clothing, feed for livestock and bioenergy. Hence it is not surprising that in Germany alone there are nine established training occupations that require substantial TVET for workers in this area. In the developing world, agriculture contributes significantly to the GDP, leads the way to poverty reduction and accounts for the majority of employment opportunities, especially for women. Agriculture also has one of the highest potentials for reducing carbon emissions and helping vulnerable people adapt to climate change. (Farming First, 2015). Countries like the Philippines and Vietnam have to improve their agricultural production and gain more value from it. Food security and food safety are major issues. Global estimates suggest  31 main hazards were responsible for 600 million foodborne illnesses and 420,000 deaths in 2010 (WHO 2015); and the majority of the global population lives in Asia.

Perceptions of food production differ in the two countries. Vietnam is keen on producing its own food, and developing export markets. In the Philippines, the Retail Association claims that up to 75% of fresh food sold in retail is imported. Quality is mostly indicated by price and appearance. Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), as a methodological process to produce safe and healthy crops, is in its infancy. Although the Philippine Department of Agriculture has started to review organic food production, there is, as yet, no certification and independent testing body to verify organic status. In 2006, ASEAN GAP was disseminated across all ASEAN countries and was established as an acknowledged common standard with minor national differences. Further developments to improve the standard for food quality are ongoing. In 2014, the first small-landholders in the Philippines were certified by the Bureau of Agriculture and Food Production Standards (BAPFS).

Vietnam introduced its GAP version under Viet GAP first in 2008. Subsequently, thousands of farmers countrywide are now Viet GAP certified. GLOBAL G.A.P., as well as European organic standards, have also successfully been introduced in the country. There is still room for improvement, but the necessity of improving agriculture through sustainable practices, for instance by minimizing chemical inputs such as fertilizer, or pesticide use through methods of integrated pest management, appear to be   progressing more rapidly  than in the Philippines.

In the Philippines, technical training and education in agriculture is a field divided between the Department of Agriculture (DA) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). There is no comprehensive or modular training covering the whole spectrum of farming. Small-landholders’ activities to improve farming on a more sustainable level are mostly supported by NGO initiatives.

In 2008, the Government of Vietnam endorsed the introduction of a standards-based approach to TVET in order to improve the quality and relevance of its vocational training provision for rural workers. The aim of the Rural Training Program ‘is to improve the quality of rural labour in meeting the requirements of industrialization and modernization of the agriculture sector and rural areas.” (ADB 2014, 51). In shifting vocational training for rural workers from a supply-driven approach to a demand-driven approach, the program seeks to provide vocational training for approximately one million rural workers per year, including training for 100,000 village civil servants. It also aims to improve the quality and efficiency of vocational training so as to generate employment, increase incomes, contribute to restructuring the rural economy and labour force, and support the industrialization and modernization of agriculture. The program is not without its critics. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) claims that there has been insufficient analysis of the training needs; resulting in lack of clarity of purpose and a weak business case. (ADB 2014).

The training content of the Vietnamese TVET system includes technical objectives, but does not extend to the complexity of sustainable practices in the value chain. This could be easily resolved. The GAP standard in both the Philippines and Vietnam for numerous crops is clearly structured. It could be adapted and included in the Vietnamese curriculum if the relevant institutions – Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs (MoLISA) and its General Directorate for Vocational Training (GDVT) – would opt to close this industry- market divide. This also applies to sustainable and organic practices that are increasingly in demand in the metropolitan areas of Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi.

The WeTrace initiative has adopted the approach described above for the Philippines and Vietnam, despite structural differences in the industry between the two countries.  Production follows the same procedures and requirements within the different value chains. The development process for the integrated service consists of the five pillars described below that have been built on experiences in the field and have proven to be an effective foundation for greening and learning in agriculture.

5.1 Pillar one: Standard analysis and market requirements

The WeTrace process begins with a standard comparison of national and international requirements across the entire agricultural spectrum. This also includes a review of the TVET agricultural curricula in the respective countries. As well, organic practices or fair trade protocols, are integrated, if the market requires this. After an in-depth analysis of practices with local experts and farmers, the body of knowledge is systematically organised in parallel with the supply chain – from ‘field to fork‘. Translation of the standards into the local language is essential if there is to be a correlation with the working reality in a specific area.

5.2 Pillar two: Supply chain analysis with farmers

By transecting the defined path of the supply chain all players (e.g., for agriculture: input supplier, farmer, rural worker, logistics, collection centre, and buyer) are engaged in the participatory approach to process review and skill development. With the aid of questionnaires, all steps within the supply chain are reviewed and discussed in order to identify critical weak points such as selection of growing conditions, quality inputs, pest management and post-harvest procedures. For the farmers, the process helps to facilitate a better understanding of their own unique environment, as well as the development of learning strategies that address the weak points in their systems. Using a step-by-step process,  and the use of custom learning materials, farmers develop skills that enable them to contribute to making the supply chain more efficient and a curriculum emerges that is shaped by the working reality of the farmer-participants.

5.3 Pillar three: Web-based traceability tool

Access to smart phones and IT is very common among farmers in the ASEAN region. Capitalising on this infrastructure, WeTrace has developed a traceability tool (including an offline and online version) which covers the whole supply chain. Similar to the supply chain analysis, the farmers participate actively in the development process as they have to operate the traceability tool. Farmers have their own farm book where all their actions can be documented. Symbols guide farmers, not only while documenting actions, but also allowing them to assess their own performance. The tool also provides a database for quantitative data—the purchase and use of inputs, master data of the farm, climate data to assess changes related to natural conditions, etc. Groups of farmers or cooperatives producing for a certain buyer/market have the opportunity to forward all their data to a central hub, in order to guide distribution and sales, as well as to provide regular updates to the quality assurance processes that promote sustainable, safe and healthy fresh food produce. The goal is to implement an effective system for a closed supply chain with assurances that both market quality and quantity are in compliance with environmental standards.

5.4 Pillar four: Blended learning

IT programs provide tailor-made tools to train people and help them internalise the concepts of quality and, in particular, green quality. However, they cannot be the only means of learning. As already mentioned, a good curriculum is fundamental to the learning process. Using established curriculum, so-called compliance officers are trained to assist farmers in their daily routine. The approach is based on a monitoring/advisory model, extending assistance to farmers, rather than directing them. Farmers receive feedback on the effectiveness of the corrective actions used to improve their current practices. By working across the entire value chain, it’s also possible to communicate further findings effectively such as problems in market relations or the need for better compliance with occupational health and safety requirements. Agricultural markets are fast changing and the training must respond accordingly as part of a continuous cycle. Today the modern farmer is not only a grower. He is in business and needs to protect and sustain his main capital: the environment. Alternating training between field assistance and (open source) software applications through smart technologies is helping to build sustainable farming practices. Based on findings that a farmer in Vietnam learns differently from his Philippine counterpart, KIAG has also started to modify the methodological-didactical approach; working with the faculty of Education of the Technical University of Dortmund/Germany. Non-formal learning is thus considered as a continuous cycle that requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders with differing perspectives.

5.5 Pillar five: Business Intelligence for complex monitoring

WeTrace has been in use since 2014 as a training and performance tool and while farmers are excited to use modern, smart technology it has also changed the way they do business. They can now input both qualitative and quantitative data into their smartphones and tablets recording their farming activities. These data serve as the basis for providing them with business intelligence and its associated benefits.

Business Intelligence (BI) can be defined as a set of techniques and tools for the transformation of raw data into meaningful and useful information for business analysis. Buyers receive the data they need to set their orders; they value the system‘s inherent quality assurances and trust the business relationship with the farmer. This results in a stronger position for the farmers, enabling them to not only  set their own prices, but also protecting them from daily price fluctuations driven by buyers. These significant incentives are what has drawn small-landholders to work with the WeTrace system. Furthermore, development programs maintained by government and non-government organisations can also be better monitored by interpreting and analysing the performance data.

In comparison, the Vietnamese market is much more advanced. Farmers produce larger quantities than in the Philippines. In addition, they are better organized in the context of producer cooperatives, contract farming, and the newest trends of closed supply chains owned and managed by retailers. With more players, larger areas under cultivation and obvious distinct regional differences, the option of comparing correlations of production data through use of WeTrace is valuable. Quality seeds can be better selected to correspond with specific soil characteristics; irrigation systems can be better optimised, and post-harvest procedures can be redesigned to find efficiencies. The effects of crop rotation and shifting cultivation as options to maintain soil fertility, as well as soil protection through use of cover crops can be better measured and reported. In addition, tracking laboratory results can serve to improve sustainable and organic practice. BI is under continuous development and promises a local, regional, and national overview for screening and monitoring rural development in the light of sustainable practices. In short, WeTrace is a tool which is gaining traction in the agricultural sector, with its capacity to not only stimulate and support the greening of production practices, but because of its capacity to provide continuous support via smart technologies to low-skilled or unskilled workers. 

The five pillars of WeTrace are not only useful for agriculture, but also relevant for workers in manufacturing/mass-production. As with the agricultural sector, there needs to be a way of embedding green and social subjects across the training system and in particular, in continuous or lifelong learning. Smart technologies may be particularly useful in supporting industries that need to adapt even minimal standards for sustainable production.  They can help to close the communication and information gap through innovative forms of training and delivery. While face-to-face learning, with its strong social component, will remain an important element in training programs, the WeTrace approach, which focuses on non-formal education and training, could be an important tool in adopting smart solutions to make industrial processes more transparent and greener. It might take some time for TVET partners to adopt this new technology for training and education. At least farmers and workers are open to innovation.

6 Conclusions

Given the interrelationship between the greening of TVET and market demand for greener products and services, the function of TVET should not be limited to the transfer of technical knowledge for new job profiles in areas such as renewable energy. TVET should also be a contributor to strategies that promote the integration of principles of sustainable development into life-long learning. This approach is particularly important for those who have little or no access to a laddered educational system. Green/sustainable development is a cross-sectoral issue of growing significance in the world of work (especially in agriculture and labour-intensive manufacturing). It will take time for TVET and the entire educational system to more effectively match the specific demands of traditional and modern industries as they negotiate the greening process. Nevertheless climate change requires immediate action.

The political dimension of TVET can be seen in our comparison of the Vietnamese and Philippine models. Vietnam, as a country that focuses on its industrial production, has already achieved remarkable outcomes in graduate performance, although TVET as a concept is relatively young. Nevertheless, current skills shortages may need to be addressed differently. In order to ensure critical skills gaps are met, a combined approach of TVET and life-long-learning might be the most effective means of greening traditional industries.

An association like ASEAN has a common vison and policy, but the greening of TVET will likely lead to a diversity of approaches across jurisdictions. Common guiding principles are needed in order to successfully address technical issues such as teacher training, curriculum development and training delivery.

Asian economies need to assess their specific capabilities in order to minimize the environmental impact of production processes. They must be willing to make compromises in order to assure a better, sustainable future, recognising that the concept of unlimited economic growth does, indeed seem to have run its course. New tools such as industry standards have been developed in order to support and promote sustainable production—standards that have been designed for people and not for factories and machinery. The idea of transparency within the supply chain is not without challenges, but one not insurmountable in light of new approaches to knowledge transfer and learning in the context of sustainable development. High-tech industries are already speaking of the next industrial age—industry 4.0 and smart solutions can be adapted to any industry if the right values are assigned to both the environment and to people. This is an opportunity to legitimise and promote non-formal learning using technology that will be soon accessible to the majority of people in Asia. As a global community we need to reassess our perspectives on traditional education – it has enormous capacity for leveraging change. Educational reform may be the most important tool in the future of greening and sustainability.

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Citation

Baumgarten, K. & Kunz, S. (2016). Re-thinking greening TVET for traditional industries in Asia – the integration of a less-skilled labour force into green supply chains. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-17. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/baumgarten_kunz_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016).