The transition to low-carbon economies that address climate change and reduce the environmental impact of development is a pressing issue for governments in Asia. Ambitious targets set by many countries in the region require the implementation of specific measures to ensure environmentally sustainable economic growth. The greening of jobs and the development of necessary skills are essential requirements for successful green transitions. This article analyses various drivers that impact upon the greening of skills in the region. It refers to several studies conducted by the author that examine current practices. The article also identifies five enabling factors that should be systematically addressed for the greening of technical and vocational education and training(TVET).

Keywords: Greening of the economy, governments’ role, Asia-Pacific region, green skills, dimensions of TVET greening, systematic reform, greening of TVET curriculum, barriers for greening skills, drivers behind greening of skills

1 Introduction: the greening of the economy

The transition to low–carbon economies that address climate change and reduce the environmental impact of development is a pressing issue for governments in Asia. To support growth in Asia and the Pacific region there is a need to prioritise policies specifically related to greening: “towards closing social and infrastructure gaps within countries and to propagating the green economy” (UN 2012 49). Responding to the tensions between environmental challenges and development, many governments in the region have set up ambitious targets to progress towards the greening of their economies. Such overarching policies as the National action Plan for Haritha Lanka Program (Sri Lanka); (National Council for Sustainable Development 2009); The Vietnam Sustainable Development Strategy for 2011-2020 (Vietnam Government 2012); The Vietnam National Green Growth Strategy (Vietnam Government 2012); The National Action Plan for Climate Change and its Eight Missions in India (Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change 2012); The 12th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of China (2011–2015) (The State Council The People’ Republic of China 2011); Law of the Republic of Indonesia No.17/2017 on the Long Term National Plan 2005-2025; Green Development policy approved in 2014 by Mongolian government (Mongolian National Environmental Policy Development Parliament’s resolution #47, 2014) outline long-term integrated strategies for economic development in the context of climate change and low-carbon growth.

Therefore many governments have committed to a pro-green agenda that supports inclusive green growth. In addition, governments in the region adopted specific regulations that facilitate the greening of particular sectors such as RA 9513 in the Philippines (for the purposes of increasing the use of renewable energy to reduce the country’s dependence on fossil fuels); or The National Plan for Sustainable Agricultural Development in China (approved by the China State Council in March 2015 and which directs the sector towards water saving technologies, environmentally friendly technologies and the cessation of farmland pollution).

Despite positive developments in environmental and climate change policies and the implementation of measures to promote environmentally sustainable economic growth, they remain a challenge for many countries. The Global Sustainable Competitiveness Index (GSCI) measures “the set of institutions, policies and factors that make a nation remain productive over the longer term while ensuring social and environmental sustainability” (World Economic Forum 2014) and maps countries’ comparative positions internationally. This index measures how sustainable the productivity level of an economy is with respect to environmental stewardship and social sustainability (World Economic Forum 2014). The GSCI was developed by adjusting the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) through incorporating the social sustainability and environmental sustainability pillars. The current standing of countries in the region varies significantly and out of 113 countries assessed globally some countries such as Pakistan and Timor-Leste ranked as low as 105-109 places.

The transition towards a greener economy requires a diverse range of skills in both environmental industries such as renewable energy, waste management, water conservation, environmental monitoring services as well as all other industries such as construction, agriculture, transport, tourism and hospitality. Changes in employment structures, the emergence of green jobs and the introduction of green technologies in different industry and service sectors as well as agriculture have a significant influence on skills requirements at different occupational levels. This challenge has a potential to worsen existing skills gaps in Asia and the Pacific region. Between 24 to 80 percent of employers surveyed by the Manpower Group reported difficulties associated with skills shortages (Table 1).The term “skills shortage” refers to both quantitative (labour shortages) and qualitative (skill gaps) lack of skills. “Skills shortage” is defined as “a genuine lack of adequately skilled individuals available in the accessible labor market with the type of skill being sought and which leads to a difficulty in recruitment. A skill shortage characterizes the situation where employers are unable to recruit staff with the skills they are looking for at the going rate of pay” (Strietska–Ilina 2008, 199). For greening industries (see an example of green construction industry in China, Figure 1) the difficulty in finding people with the required technical expertise has increased.

Table 1:             Percentage of employers who experience difficulties in recruitment (Aring 2012)

Figure 1: Barriers to investment in green buildings in China, 2012 versus 2011 ( EU SME Centre 2013)

The importance of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) has been well documented in reports, research studies and other sources (e.g. CEDEFOP 2012; Strietska-Ilina et al. 2011; OECD 2011). In particular, The Third World TVET Congress organised by UNESCO in 2012 clearly identified the pivotal role of TVET in the quest to build greener economies and solve unemployment issues. The Congress published Shanghai Consensus: Recommendations of the Third International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education and Training “Transforming TVET: Building skills for work and life” that provided recommendations to governments and highlighted the importance of adjusting TVET qualifications and programs in order to develop relevant skills for the greening of the economy in addition to facilitating advances in sustainable development.

This article refers to several studies conducted by the author in the region and discusses one challenge that hinders the greening of skills: the identification and support of major drivers behind skills and occupational changes. At least three other challenges were identified through the author’s research: (i) the identification of the nature of green skills and ways to deliver training; (ii) the development of a normative framework and curricula; and (iii) the inclusion of green skills in informal learning. These three challenges are not, however, examined in this paper.

2 The greening of skills

The analysis of international reports that highlight the importance of education and training in the pursuit of green growth strategies (e.g. CEDEFOP 2012; Strietska-Ilina et al 2011; OECD 2011) provides evidence that the scope, and introduction, of specific green-related training programs varies across the countries. More than half the countries that participated in the OECD (2011) survey reported they had implemented such programs and indicated that green education and training programs will play a significant role in enabling workers to participate in the green economy. However, another report by CEDEFOP (2012) warned that the reality is that there is a lack of demand in the development of new qualifications which prevents learning providers from developing new learning content. In addition, any developments that are being created operate at a slow pace. Furthermore, it is difficult for TVET providers to meet “the needs of employers with diverse occupational profiles and to understand the skills needs of organisations” (CEDEFOP 2012, 9).

For developing countries the situation is even more complex. When countries do not have well-developed mechanisms for adjusting to the changing needs of the labour market (education and training systems are less responsive) then companies usually account for the largest share of skill provision. Strietska-Ilina, Hofmann, Durán Haro, & Jeon (2011) concludes that in many developing countries governments and formal TVET providers have not yet responded to the skill challenges associated with environmental issues and climate change. Training responses are often isolated and sporadic, and their impact on the greening of industries as well as the overall economy remains limited (Strietska-Ilina et al. 2011, 142). The majority of these reports examined specialised green skills related to new green occupations which might require the introduction of new training programs.

Economic restructuring with the purpose of attaining a cleaner, more climate–resilient, efficient economy that preserves environmental sustainability and provides decent work conditions mainly requires up-skilling, or augmenting existing core skills to enable a person to fulfil a new occupation (CEDEFOP 2010), or performing the same occupation in a greener manner by applying greener practices and technologies. These top-up skills will be analysed in the paper by providing some results of a study funded by UNESCO–UNEVOC International Centre for which the author was a research consultant. The project, “Green Skills – Top up approaches: How TVET Institutions are responding in Asia and the Pacific region”, examined how TVET institutions in Asia and the Pacific region have responded to the challenge of greening skills. Surveys were distributed to TVET students and TVET teachers to map training related to green knowledge, skills and competencies as well as teaching/training and learning in formal TVETs in the Philippines, China, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Mongolia was presented separately due to its relative large sample compared to other countries. The study focused on two sectors: construction and agriculture, and explored how greening by topping up skills is embedded in TVET programs and how this related to the governments’ agenda for greening societies and economies.

3 TVET perspective: major drivers behind skills and occupational changes

When applied to formal TVETs, skills and occupational challenges relate to the identification and support of major drivers behind program changes in TVET institutions. Data collected through interviews during several studies, conducted by the author, identified the following drivers for greening TVET programs in the region:

• International training standards used by vocational training providers (VTPs) often include environmental protection issues (e.g. for marine training – International Marine Organisation standards)
• Environmental legislation (e.g. emission control systems that influence the inclusion of particular modules in training)
• Rules and regulations in industry sectors (e.g. for training for the hospitality sector – hygiene in food preparation; for security in hotels – environmental protection)
• New occupations (e.g. the introduction of specialised green skills such as having eco-tourism as one of the subjects in a tour guide specialisation)
• VTPs initiatives (e.g. the introduction of a hybrid engine module into curriculum; creating start-up teams to develop green technologies to deal with environmental concerns)
• Government initiatives (e.g. universities and technical colleges are requested to identify subject areas to incorporate issues of sustainable development; the development of modules, subjects and units for both specific and generic green skills initiated by ministries that TVET providers should include in their programs or use when developing programs)

Each of the above drivers contributes toward greening TVET; however their impact varies from country to country. For example in Mongolia, where the government push towards greening TVET is in its early stages, TVET providers play a crucial role. This can be illustrated by the case of the Mongolian Korean Polytechnic School that introduced a competency unit on ecological training; developed teaching materials, established a waste management system and introduced a new program on renewable energy (solar and wind). Students and staff have been involved in developing a green strategy for the school and they plan to include green competencies in all their programs within five years. In the countries where the government push is stronger, the initiative of training providers remains significant. Tran Hyng Dao Vocational College in Vietnam recognised a demand for eco–food from its expanding tourist industry. The college also identified a demand for specific green skills on food export and productivity and invited experts from Hanoi University of Agriculture and the Bristol Research Institute of Agriculture to discuss necessary agricultural technologies and to develop relevant training courses that include waste processing, the use of biogas and other technologies.

Akademi Teknik Mesin dan Industri (ATMI), a polytechnic-level institution that provides vocational training, built the first energy–saving and environmentally friendly educational building in Indonesian TVET by adopting green building design, construction and operation. The ATMI has also bolstered sustainable innovation by promoting green technology development through setting up graduates’ start–ups. This serves as an excellent example to illustrate how this institution devoted significant resources and time for greening TVET despite the difficulties encountered combined with a lack of expertise in the region (they were unable to identify a local architectural firm capable of designing a green building).

In Sri Lanka, the Don Bosco Technical Centre adopts a holistic approach towards greening by using alternative energy sources, conserving energy, managing waste, greening the campus and providing social support to local communities. The centre houses a biogas unit that produced methane gas from the pig dung. They use leftovers from the canteen to feed their pigs and the dung becomes a renewable resource for biogas generation, which is used for cooking in the canteen and for running the energy generator. This process is considered highly cost-effective, profitable and environmentally friendly as it utilises the dung as an energy source for the centre. Don Bosco also recycles scrap metal and timber in the form of decorations. In the area of social responsibility, the centre had begun experimenting with producing their own solar cells and LEDs that they planned to sell at the market at a cheaper price. In classes, students discuss environmental issues and the centre funds a teacher to be trained in waste water and energy efficiency.

Although the importance of VTPs’ initiatives should not be underestimated, government initiatives have been identified by the regional UNESCO–UNEVOC study as the major drivers behind greening in the construction and agriculture sectors. In Figure 2, the first response for each driver is from construction and the second is from agriculture.

Figure 2: The main reasons for greening skills in TVET programs in construction and agriculture

These results indicate that the role of the government in greening skills in the TVET curriculum is particularly powerful. Around 90 percent of respondents strongly agree, or agree, that government initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy, in establishing environmental legislation and in greening training standards have influenced the greening of TVET programs in both agriculture and construction. Government initiatives in supporting the development of training programs and courses had a stronger push in agriculture than construction.

However, despite the similarities, additional drivers play a significant role in some countries. A comparison between Malaysia and the Philippines in the agricultural sector (Figure 3) revealed significant differences that will in turn lead to different challenges in terms of the implementation of greening skills. For example, sector/occupation regulations, and changes and international training standards, do not influence Malaysia to the same extent as the Philippines. However, initiatives by TVET institutions, environmental legislation and government initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy have a strong influence in Malaysia but not in the Philippines.

Figure 3: The inclusion of green skills in the curriculum: country specific challenges

This information can be used to plan further TVET greening by “adding” additional drivers and strengthening existing ones.

The same survey also asked teachers how the green restructuring of the labour market and changes in occupational profiles had influenced their programs. For construction, survey participants identified “emergency of new occupations” and “alternation of occupation process/methods” as the major drivers behind the greening of their programs and courses. Fewer respondents agreed that the “elimination of existing jobs” had motivated changes in their programs and courses over the last two years (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Influence of green restructuring of the labour market and changes in occupational profiles – construction

A closer examination across the countries (data for China was missing for these questions), revealed that – unlike the Philippines and Sri Lanka – Malaysia strongly considered the potential elimination of existing jobs and alteration of occupational process/methods to be their drivers for including green skills. More than 20 percent of the respondents from Sri Lanka strongly disagree with these two statements and this may be indicative of the slow pace of the greening of their economy (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Country specific responses to the elimination of existing jobs and alteration of processes in construction

TVET respondents from agriculture believe that “alteration of occupation process/methods” was the main reason for greening TVET programs and around 40 percent disagree that the “elimination of existing jobs” was the reason. There is a 100 percent agreement from Malaysian respondents that “alteration of occupation process/methods” is the reason for greening (Figure 6). This information demonstrated that for agriculture, alteration of occupational processes and methods is more significant than for construction.

Figure 6: Influence of green restructuring of the labour market and changes in occupational profiles – agriculture

Another important factor that supports greening in TVET is collaboration with external bodies. Construction industry TVET collaborates closely with industry associations, professional associations and, to a lesser extent, with private enterprises to include greening skills (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Collaboration with external bodies in construction

Collaboration in agriculture has a different profile whereby the majority of TVET providers (83 percent) collaborate directly with private enterprises and only 17 percent with industry associations.

All institutions, regardless of sector, are involved in collaboration which highlights the crucial role of external partnerships for greening programs. This importance is also reflected in responses to the ways in which green skills are included in TVET programs. More than 80 percent of teachers, in both agriculture and construction, agree that green skills are mainly learnt through industry placement.

Additional means by which major drivers for greening can be identified is through an analysis of the barriers that inhibit green skills inclusion. For both sectors, barriers at the national level, such as lacking an assessment mechanism to certify environmental skills in existing qualification standards and the absence of certification combined with a low demand for green skills hampered green skills inclusion. Additional barriers at the institutional level, such as the non-inclusion of green skills in the curriculum, the need for professional development and a lack of initiative from administration to develop green attitudes among staff were identified in the construction sector. At the personal level, a lack of teaching time to teach green skills was also highlighted as a significant factor. Moreover, from the TVET perspective, the demand for green skills in these two industries was not apparent. Only 30 percent of respondents agree, or strongly agree, that the demand is there. Therefore, the greening of industry that will articulate a demand for TVET could be viewed as an important driver for greening TVET.

At the national level in the agricultural sector, around 60 percent of the interviewees identified the lack of means to certify environmental skills to existing qualification standards as a barrier. Other barriers included the absence of assessment mechanisms and little demand for the teaching of green skills. At the personal level, the demand for teaching resources was highlighted. An example of teachers’ responses in construction is presented in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Figure 8: Barriers inhibiting the introduction of green skills in construction

Therefore, among the major drivers behind the greening of TVET programs, as perceived by TVET institutions government initiatives in particular play a crucial role. Governments’ initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy, and in setting up environmental legislation and in greening training standards are of particular importance. In order to address environmental legislation that influences the inclusion of new modules or programs as well as the rules and regulations in industry sectors, TVET institutions closely collaborate with industry. In addition, changes in the labour market such as the elimination of some jobs, the emergence of new occupations and the alteration of existing processes and methods are considered by TVET providers to be the drivers for change, whereas the alteration of existing processes and methods provides a stronger push in agriculture.

4 Requirements for systematic reform

In addition to the TVET perspective on drivers behind greening TVET curriculum (analysed in the section above), a systematic review conducted by the author through a number of studies in the region identified five central dimensions that should be addressed at the macro level to ensure greening of TVET. They are summarised in Figure 9. Direct government support at the level of policy coordination and TVET reform is identified as one of five enabling factors. In addition, the governments’ role in stimulating and supporting all other dimensions such as industry greening; direct influence on TVET curriculum development; stimulation of stakeholders’ active involvement; and awareness raising amongst the whole population is crucial. Some examples from Vietnam are used in this section.

Table 2: Five dimensions of TVET greening (Pavlova 2015)

4.1 Awareness

In addition to raising the general awareness about environmental issues in populations as a whole, awareness and capacity development of TVET stakeholders is required in many countries. To achieve change in greening development agents of change are required at all levels: people across society should be involved in communication/education processes relevant to green growth and green skills development. Considering that every job can become greener, environmental aspects need to be included in many aspects of social life, not just in training for newly emerging occupations. Capacity building at the ministerial level, as well as at the level of states/ provinces, is required for stakeholders who are involved in skills development policy formulation and implementation strategies. In these programs general principles of greening economies and skills requirements should be highlighted with examples from different industries.

4.2 Government support

Governments play an important role in TVET developments in the region. For many developing countries, current changes in TVET relate to expanding the traditional TVET system and its mainstreaming. There is a need to define appropriate measures to formulate a skills response by improving the effectiveness of overall training and its links with industry.

In the long run, changes in training systems towards greening need to be channelled through existing system-based, established mechanisms. In countries where the TVET system is responsive to the changing needs of the labour market, changing skill needs in existing occupations has led to the creation of initial or continuous training responses; however, this mechanism does not exist in some countries. In Vietnam, for example, the system does not have a strong tradition of updating TVET curricula in response to labour market demands. Individual institutions adjust their training programs to meet current needs but there are no comprehensive approaches for skills forecasting. From this perspective there are no established pathways for narrowing the skills gap, and as a result for including green skills in education and training programs.

The majority of providers follow government initiatives; therefore governments need to continue their direct involvement in training provision to increase its internal quality as well as its external relevance. As a consequence, ongoing TVET reform and the greening of skills need to be linked. Incentives for private providers to deliver high-quality training programs should include a requirement for green skills development.

Governments need to develop a policy framework for the introduction of green skills in TVET now to reduce the time lag that usually occurs when a demand from industry is detected but programs are not there to meet this demand. One of the strategies that can provide immediate results is to use existing initiatives in skills development to introduce green skills. For example, the Vocational Training for Rural Workers up to 2020 Program (started in 2009) could be used to provide green training in Vietnam and the government could include this requirement for project applications.

4.3 Curriculum

Countries where TVET providers have some flexibility (usually around 30 percent) in curriculum development have better opportunities to respond rapidly to the needs of industry in terms of the greening of technologies or adjustments in production/service provision. These institutions could review their courses following delivery and include new (green) components required by industry.The attitudes of TVET providers’ principals are crucial for the development of institutions. When government TVET providers feel empowered and are expected to be proactive by “the system”, and if they understand the importance of change relevant to green growth, they can put additional measures in place to ensure green skills are included in the curriculum.

Green growth depends on greening all jobs. In developing approaches towards the inclusion of green skills in the TVET curriculum, several issues need to be addressed:

• The inclusion of generic green skills that combine environmental awareness and general understanding of greening with process-based generic green skills, such as monitoring and managing waste, energy, water , material use, impact minimisation and assessment.
• Greening of study programs should include both generic modules (to understand the principles and main ideas) and specific, occupation-related courses that are target technical skills development in particular areas.
• Development of teaching materials for generic modules could be based on existing materials produced by some institutes (e.g. Hanoi University of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam).
• Two learning models can be considered: the diffusion model that includes issues relevant to greening from the perspectives of different green industries into a study program to enhance the interdisciplinarity of learning, and the infusion model that provides training in greening processes specific to occupations.
• Adjust green skills development strategies towards different levels of skills development. Research by the author demonstrates that changes in existing occupations need to occur at all skill levels. Often, the main challenge is to introduce green skills at the low- and middle-skill levels, as currently there are limited mechanisms for achieving this. Often high skills (from the level of Bachelor’s degree and up) have been introduced in different programs.
• A forward-looking approach is required as it takes time to develop skills (particularly at the higher levels).

In addition, government bodies that oversee standards development (e.g. the National Skills Standards Development Committee in Vietnam that undertakes tasks and skills analysis to formulate skills standards) could facilitate the introduction of green skills into skills standards.

Workplace learning plays a crucial role in introducing green skills, and is comprised of a diverse set of practices, ranging from brief periods when the learner observes a workplace during visits to structured internships and long–term apprenticeships that lead to qualifications. Targeted approaches to workplace learning are required to ensure that green operations and processes are a part of these practices. Greening of training provision for low- and medium-skilled occupations are more likely to take place on the job (occupational changes are, and probably stay, mainly related to the introduction of new technologies, environmental protection policies and legislations, as well as changes in management practice) and will have a very practical focus (compared to high–skills often delivered through higher education).

4.4 Greening of industries

The identification of measures for greening the economy was not a focus of this article; however, it is important to make a number of observations in relation to entrepreneurship. Accelerating entrepreneurship is essential for large–scale employment generation. Even for countries that are better positioned in terms of formal sector employment growth (e.g. Vietnam had 4.1 percent employment growth in the formal sector over the period 2009–2011) (UN 2012), large businesses (both public and private) have not generated enough employment in the past few decades and are unlikely to do so in the near future due to planned increases in productivity. Therefore, entrepreneurship has the potential to significantly contribute to issues relevant to clean energy, waste management, green agriculture and others. However, in order to stimulate entrepreneurial growth conditions, a supportive government and regulatory environment, adequate capital flows (both debt and equity), support from businesses and society, as well as the availability of appropriate talent and mentoring are required. The government should consider supporting small– and medium–sized enterprises to participate in knowledge networks and skills development that will lead to innovation or the adaptation of green innovation.

However, new technologies must not be expensive. As stated by the Vietnam Academy of Social Science (an interview with the author), a successful 10-year pilot project aimed at reducing chemicals in textile production collapsed due to the cost associated with new technologies. In this instance everyone involved in the project reverted to using old technologies. Similarly, solar and wind power production is not competitive compared to traditional methods.

For the informal economy, jobs should become greener to facilitate the development of green skills as for low– and medium–skilled occupations skills training are more likely to take place at the workplace.

An effective labour market information system is an essential component for increasing the effectiveness of skills development planning; however, additional means for detecting new needs associated with the implementation of green strategies and the transition to a low–carbon, greener economy should be developed. There is a requirement to develop a uniform statistical definition of green jobs to enable the measuring of skills required for them. Currently, ad hoc studies conducted by individual institutions that are one–off initiatives, provide limited information relevant to particular provinces or communities. Information provided at the sector–specific level is essential.

4.5 Involvement of different stakeholders

A lot has been written about the importance of TVET stakeholders’ participation in curriculum development as well as their support of training programs. The same applies to greening TVET. To improve the quality of TVET, key stakeholders need to be engaged and employers in particular, so they are able to explain skills requirements and provision. In addition, there is a need to train workplace instructors in pedagogy. Adequate incentives for employers to become actively involved in different aspects of training are required.

5 Conclusion

A strong policy commitment towards green growth in the region is evident in government policies and action plans; however, the implications of these strategies in a skills development context have not been rigorously addressed. This is particularly evident in the absence of assessment and certification mechanisms and in the lack of demand for green skills. Demand for green skills is mainly influenced by government regulations, incentive schemes and other initiatives. TVET providers are trying to maintain close links with industry in order to adjust their courses to meet current demand; however, they are not so active in anticipating future skills demand. Therefore, if we are to ensure that existing occupations become greener and that green jobs creation is scaled up a great deal of political support and commitment is required. This includes the development of regulatory and institutional frameworks; financial, technical and intellectual investment; mapping skills requirements against TVET training and retraining provisions; and the support of multi public/private and community sector partnerships.

Governments have a particularly important role to play in the following three aspects:

• To bridge the gap between TVET outcomes and jobs requirements, so when the greening of the economy speeds up, TVET will be ready to respond with well-established mechanisms. TVET responses can establish effective ways to meet the changing needs of the labour market.
• In anticipating the greening of the economy and in meeting the social demand to address environmental and social issues, TVETs need to be proactive in awareness raising and developing generic green skills in two categories (general awareness and common greening processes).
• Formulate measures for greening the economy through the development of green industries and developing green practices in all industries (to formulate green skills demand).

The attitude “growth first and greening later” does not work (WB, 2012); therefore economic and social development should go hand–in–hand with greening. Although skills development required for green growth presents a challenge for governments worldwide, the government’s role; however, is pivotal to ensuring that the future workforce can address the challenges of green growth (including environmental, social and economic aspects), to interpreting environmental legislation, to increasing energy and resource efficiency if they are to enable the processes involved in greening the economy.

As this article focuses on formal TVET, the role of NGOs as well as informal and non-formal learning has not been addressed. However, the informal sector plays a very significant role in the region and additional studies are required to identify this sector’s greening drivers.

Acknowledgements

This article used results of the project “Green Skills – Top up approaches: How TVET Institutions are responding in Asia and the Pacific region” (2015) supported by the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre, Bonn where the author was a research consultant. The article is also reflected on findings of the ADB project on Education and Skills for Inclusive Growth and Green Jobs (2012–2014) where the author was a research consultant.

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Citation

Pavlova, M. (2016). Regional overview: What is the government’s role in greening TVET? In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-18. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/pavlova_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016).

The reform of TVET systems all over the world as well as in Asia is an essential request in a time of fast-change and sustainable development. Securing quality in vocational teacher education plays an important role in achieving the supply of adequately skilled workers in this context. To make sure that vocational teachers have the necessary competencies to fulfil the requirement in the new era and to facilitate the process of vocational teacher education, the professional profile of vocational teaching profession needs to be reviewed and consolidated. On the basis of literature review and considering features of “the greening of technical and vocational education and training”, we propose a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the context of sustainable development. This model represents a system of essential competencies within their cross – influences, based on necessary knowledge, which vocational teachers should acquire or continue to develop throughout their whole careers not only to meet the requirements of profession in fast – change world, but also to contribute to building ecologically sound economies. The model presented in graphical form helping users to capture quickly its key features was established to support the professional development of vocational teaching staff based on clearly defined competencies in accordance with tendency of sustainable development.

Keywords: sustainable development, green skills, VTE, vocational teacher education, pedagogical competence, didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, professional expertise, educating competence, self-reflection competence, dual system

1 The relevance of a model of pedagogical competence for greening TVET

Climate change has had a significant impact on human lives all over the world with many severe consequences such as melting ice, rising sea levels, heat waves, an increase of the number, duration and intensity of tropical storms and droughts, alarming global warming etc. Locating in regions regarded as the workbench of the world, many countries in East and Southeast Asia are suffering from social, economical, and ecological problems caused by climate change. Vietnam is one of the countries, which suffers most from natural catastrophes and climate change. Vietnam Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX Vietnam 2015) shows that Vietnam is suffering from six to seven tropical storms every year on average as a results of climate change; from 1990 to 2010, there were 74 floods in the river systems of Vietnam; severe drought, salinization, landslides, and other natural disasters have been hindering the development of Vietnam (MoRE & UNDP 2015). According to statistics, in the last 50 years, the average annual temperature of Vietnam has increased about 0.5 to 0.7 degrees Celsius. Also over this period, the sea level in Vietnam rose 20 cm. Annually, the damage caused by natural disasters in Vietnam is equivalent to 1.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) (MoRE & DoWRM 2015). Vietnam government has launched some relevant strategies to support green growth, such as becoming the first country in the world releasing a special report (SREX Vietnam 2015) based on framework SREX (Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2012 a,b), establishing Vietnam Panel on Climate Change (VPCC), which includes many leading scientists in field of environmental science in Vietnam, who will give advices on policies and scientific basis to government to gradually enhance climate change adaptation and to build ecologically solid economy. Green economy also requires a highly skilled workforce supplied by high quality vocational education and training system in accordance with tendency of sustainable development. The quality of vocational teacher affects the achievement of vocational learners directly. Therefore, it is important to build a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the world of sustainable development to contribute to building sustainable vocational education and training system not only for Vietnam, but also for other countries in East and Southeast Asia as well as in other regions in the world.

The proposal for a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers aims to:

• provide an instrument to reflect the quality of professional performance of vocational teachers, the quality of vocational teacher education, even the quality of engineer education and training on the basis of a common understanding of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers, especially in era of sustainable development.
• contribute to shaping the initial and in-service vocational teacher education, particularly in setting the objectives of vocational teacher education and training.
• promote the establishment and improvement of policies in terms of technical and vocational education and training (TVET), in particular the policies facilitating the initial establishment and development of TVET dual systems in vocational education and training, as well as the greening of vocational education.
• suggest a tool to vocational teachers to self-evaluate, to control and enhance their competencies as well as to set their professional goals in a rapidly changing world, in which the sustainable development is vital and urgently required.
• contribute a theoretical foundation for further discussions in the field of TVET and to provide a basis which can support the establishment of standards for vocational teacher as well as standards for the vocational teacher education (VTE) in new era.
• consolidating the profile of vocational teaching profession in accordance with the requirement of a sustainable development.

2 The international discussion on competence models in VTE

Through the literature analysis, we considered some theoretical foundations providing the useful knowledge on competencies of teacher in general and of vocational teacher specifically.

Košinár cited the idea of Frey that competences are always solid due to broad knowledge, which is classified by Kunter and other German authors into professional declarative and procedural knowledge (Košinár 2014, 31; Frey 2006, 163; Kunter et al. 2011, 14). Declarative knowledge as mentally propositional represented understanding can be described by semantic networks. Someone is aware of the knowledge and can verbalize it. Procedural knowledge is embodied knowledge: how to do something successfully. Terhart added action routines and forms of reflection to this competence domain, competence of teacher therefore relies on “scientifically sound knowledge, situationally flexible applicable routines, and on specially professional ethics representing the action-guiding standards of value” (Terhart 2000, 55; Košinár 2014, 32; Carle 2002,10). Before that, the famous American educator Shulman classified knowledge of teaching profession into five main dimensions: (1) general pedagogical knowledge relating to broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organization, (2) subject-matter content knowledge, (3) pedagogical content knowledge, (4) curricular knowledge, (5) other knowledge with reference to knowledge of educational context, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational purposes, values and their philosophical, historical grounds (Shulman 1986, 1987; Košinár 2014, 32-33). Other authors added consulting knowledge as the sixth dimension into this classification (Kunter et al. 2011, 29; Košinár 2014, 33).

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1987 in the United State, dedicated to promoting excellence in education) pointed out that professional competence of teacher should comprise:

• “specific declarative and procedural knowledge (competence in the narrower sense: knowledge and skills);
• professional values, beliefs, subjective theories, normative preferences and objectives;
• motivational orientations and metacognitive abilities and skills of professional self-regulation”

(NBPTS 2002, cited by Baumert & Kunter 2006, 481; Hopf 2012, 19)

Baumert, Kunter and their colleagues in framework of their COACTIV-study for PISA 2003 developed a heuristic model of professional competence for teacher, in particular teachers for mathematics, drawn on Schulman’s theory and combined with idea of NBPTS 2002. )The competence of teacher in this model includes personal dispositions (beliefs, values, goals, motivational orientations, self-regulation), knowledge and skills based on five professional knowledge areas (subject-matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical psychological knowledge, knowledge of organization and consulting knowledge), each area is continuously classified into many other facets (Baumert & Kunter 2011, 32; Košinár 2014, 50). This model was adopted, discussed, and even criticized by other authors. The main commentaryarising concentrated on the fact that there is no interconnection between the competence facets, in addition, the concrete relation between these competencies and classroom were not pointed out. (Lehmann-Grube & Nikolaus 2009, 61; Košinár 2014, 50-51).

Some other authors focused on the competence of teachers relating to classroom activities. Bauer (2005) introduced his model “Taxonomy of educational skills” with emphasis on pedagogical basic competence concerning teaching competence including six dimensions: (1) Clarifying of teaching objectives and structuring content; (2) building social structures of classroom; (3) controlling interaction; (4) communicating and informing; (5) designing of learning environments, (6) implementing of background work (planning and organization) (Bauer 2005, 20, Košinár 2014, 51).

Hopf (2012) also built in her dissertation four following competence groups of vocational teacher relating to teaching competence:

(1) Professional competence (Fachkompetenz) refers to the ability of vocational teachers to master the professional knowledge to be learned and taught;

(2) method competence (Methodenkompetenz) refers to abilities of vocational teachers to clearly structure the teaching contents, to clearly build the concrete teaching content, to master the diversity of teaching methods and to give the performance diagnostics;

(3) relational competence (Beziehungskompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to well build and maintain the relationship with vocational learners;

(4) controlling competence (Kontrollkompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to guide the vocational learners. (Hopf 2012, 60-62).

To build four above competence groups, Hopf considered Weinert’s and Klippert’s ideas about competence of teacher. According to Weinert (2000), teachers need four competence areas to have good teaching performance: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) competence of guiding learners in classroom. According to Klippert (2004), teachers need ten following competencies to effectively teach: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) method competence; (5) instruction competence; (6) moderation competence; (7) consulting competence; (8) emotional competence; (9) competence of guiding learners in classroom; (10) cooperation competence.

Nevertheless just competencies concerning teaching ability are not adequate for determining of competence of teacher. It can be noted, that above concepts have not taken the relations between school and social context into consideration yet. Nieke (2012) added this factor when he gave another model, in which the competence of analysis of social context was added. According to Nieke’s model, teacher’s pedagogical competence consist of two parts: professional actions standing in center, including five phases ((1) determining of teaching objectives, (2) analyzing action situation, (3) planning, (4) implementing of teaching action with direct interaction, conveying of teaching content and action in organization, (5) evaluation) based on“background” competencies including competencies of analysis of social context (Gesellschaftsanalyse), self reflexion (Selbstreflexion) and diagnosis of situation (Situationsdiagnose). (Nieke 2012, 51; Košinár 2014, 54). This model of Nieke was appreciated due to the consideration of social context. However, as most of above theories, this structure faced to the commentary, that the interconnection among competencies was not taken into account (Košinár 2014, 53). Besides, the competence of vocational teacher specifically has not been analyzed in a concrete and systematic manner yet.

Soysouvanh and his colleagues, when developing a framework of competence standards of vocational teacher for Lao PDR, sketched five following competence areas: (1) Competence area of Acting in an exemplary manner; (2) competence area of Teaching, (3) competence area of Educating, (4) competence area of Assessment, (5) competence area of Self-Development and Innovation (Soysouvanh et al. 2013). These competence areas were built in consideration of concrete situation of Lao PDR and serve the actual situation in Lao, however can be used as a reference on the way to finding a common understanding of competence of vocational teacher in common sense. While doing their research, Soysouvanh and his colleagues based their research on a broad variety of international scientific literature, one of those is Hartmann’s notion about competence of vocational teachers (Soysouvanh et al. 2013).

In oder to contribute to providing an insight into competences of vocational teachers, Hartmann (2012) thoroughly developed a profile of vocational teacher profession with a diversified description of competences of vocational teachers based on the German experience. In this picture, the competences of vocational teachers were classified into two groups: competences relating to framework conditions and competences relating to professional activity content. In group of competences relating to framework conditions, Hartmann pointed out some relevant competences of vocational teachers, such as:

• analytical competence relates to the ability of vocational teachers to analyze the teaching content, the prerequisites of learners, the institutional teaching environment and the time structure;
• didactic pedagogical competence, which means that vocational teachers must master many diversified teaching methods to apply them appropriately in accordance with institutional conditions of vocational school and teaching objectives;
• negotiation competence, which describes that vocational teachers must be able to cooperate with colleagues to carry out her/his pedagogical duties in the context of school organization and for the common development of school;
• innovation competence refers to the fact that vocational teacher should be able to recognize her/his own needs of advanced training and improve her/his deficits.
• etc.

In group of competences relating to professional activity content, Hartmann emphasized many necessary competencies of vocational teacher, for examples:

• ability to analyse the picture of profession (which is learned and taught) and curriculum;
• ability to choose, structure the teaching content and to determine the teaching procedure in accordance with tendency of competence-oriented teaching as well as in consideration of working and learning places in dual system (cooperation between vocational school and factory/ company);
• ability to capture the fast changing technologies, to grasp processes of work in the real workplaces, to link real work processes with professional learning processes;
• etc.

A series of concrete competencies in each group was presented and discussed in a practical manner, analyzed adequately in detail (see Hartmann 2012, 79-118), that expressed the complexity and diversity of competencies of vocational teacher in real professional context.

Respecting the idea that competence of vocational teacher is still a complex, ill-structured domain facing the fast-change world with the tendency of sustainable development, we suggest a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher with a coherent structure and the clear interconnection among competence areas that might help accommodate this complexity and reach a common understanding of this object for a new era of sustainability in development.

3 Model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher as a basis for VTE with special respect to the Greening of TVET

The proposed model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers builds on the six competency domains, that have the close relations with each other, affect and enhance each other, rely on (or are influence by) the pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge/ skills. An overview of this model is illustrated by the following graphic:

Figure 1: Model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers

More detailed descriptions of all components as well as the interactions among these components in the model are provided in the below section.

A.Six competence domains:

Teaching competence refers to the ability of teachers to carry out theoretical, practical or integrated instruction in the implementation of their teaching duties successfully. Teachers have to be able to determine learning objectives and teaching content on the basis of considering individual properties of vocational learners (e.g. their existing background, their social/ family/ personal characteristics, their needs etc.), as well as on the basis of the philosophy of education and training, the curricula and the corresponding link with the real work processes. Vocational teachers also have to capture, master many different teaching methods, and can choose the appropriate teaching methods for the lesson and the relevant measures for evaluating of learning results in accordance with learning objectives, learning content as well as with the tendency of pupil-centered teaching. Teaching competence also refers to the fact that the teachers can plan lessons, design a suitable and optimized learning and working environment, control and coordinate the learning process in the classroom flexibly, design interesting activities and relevant learning tasks to motivate the vocational learners, manage the learners as well as groups of learners, interact with vocational learners suitably and dominate teaching materials/ media/ tools. The vocational teachers are also expected to be sensible and creative enough to facilitate the learning processes of vocational learners, promote their active learning and their creativity, stimulate their intellectual development and help them in enhancement the professional skills and in achieving their learning goals.

Educating competence relates to the ability of teachers to support the vocational learners to improve their personality traits, e.g.: Through the teaching methods, the advice and the way of organization of work processes / learning processes, teachers can help the vocational learners in establishing the scientific worldview, practicing the discipline style, building awareness of occupational safety, environmental protection, as well as the awareness of saving (saving energy, fuel, material, etc.), the honesty, the cooperation etc. The teacher is also a role model, a good example for the vocational learners in terms of moral virtues such as: honesty, fairness, dependability, responsibility, etc. Especially, nowadays human beings have to face the ongoing climate change as well as risks of health problems and difficulties of living condition due to rapidly changing environmental conditions such as changing precipitation, melting snow and ice, altered hydrological systems and water resources, the warming and local changes in temperature etc. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – IPCC 2014, 4,6) as the consequences of human activities altering the atmospheric composition, that is the pressing issue of our time. The alarming climate change like the global warming requires the solutions urgently, and it can be noted that today sustainable development plays a very important role in all fields of the life including TVET. For this reason, it must be emphasized that vocational teachers in general and the technical vocational teachers in particular have to take responsibility to educate the vocational learners about the awareness of environmental protection. This competence should be considered as an important competence of vocational teachers nowadays and should be compiled and emphasized in professional profile of vocational teacher profession. The teachers should introduce the vocational learners to the environmentally friendly production processes and environmentally friendly technologies. It requires the modern, progressive knowledge and skills in terms of professional expertise of vocational teachers. The teachers must therefore always update and evolve their knowledge and skills, capture the changing technologies in order to be able to implement this educating duty. Additionally, it may be noted that the educating processes take place through the teaching processes/ during the teaching processes. That is why the educating competence has the close connection with the teaching competence, communicative and language competence, and other competencies, in particular with professional expertise.

Professional expertise/ professional competence concerns the abilities of teachers to master the subject-matter content/ scientific and occupational content, to keep it up to date and to use it appropriately, adequately within the classroom. Knowledge and skills differ greatly between professional fields, and vocational teachers must possess the deep knowledge and solid skills of the occupational field in which they teach in the flow of technology changes. Professional expertise is critically important to vocational teachers because the fact that vocational teachers have inadequate fundamentals of content knowledge and work skills definitely leads to the fact of providing the labour market with insufficiently skilled workers. For that reason, the vocational teachers should constantly develop their professional competence, in this case, the competence of self-reflection and improving qualifications and competence of linking real work processes with the professional learning processes along with knowledge on methodology of scientific research are very necessary and useful for the teachers to consolidate and expand their expertise. And the expertise certainly affects on the teaching competence and on educating competence, for example, if the teacher wants to educate the vocational pupils/ students about the awareness of environmental protection, it requires the specialized knowledge, skills in terms of environmentally friendly technologies, or when a vocational teacher wants to carry out a lesson, he/ she must coordinate the technical occupational content, so he/she definitely needs the expertise beyond teaching skills. So it can be stated that the professional expertise / professional competence is tightly connected with other competencies: it supports greatly other competencies and is strengthened by other competencies. Furthermore, nowadays humans have to cope with the quick-change world, the technology is changing rapidly, the industrialization occurs in many regions all over the world, especially in developing countries as well as in Asia, causes the environmental and health problems not also in Asia but also throughout the world, so it requires that the vocational teachers be able to keep their expertise up to date in the flow of technology changes, capture the new technologies, especially green technologies regarding renewable energies as well as green solutions for occupation to be learned and taught to contribute to environment protection and sustainable development.

In a broader sense, considering professional expertise as a critically vital competence of vocational teachers to compile and emphasize this competence in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession can also contribute to promoting of establishing the relevant policies relating to the investment for TVET field including adequate providing of modern machines, instruments, equipment for vocational schools, as well as increasing of vocational teachers’ salary in many countries, especially in developing countries with emerging economies and institutional voids. As we know, with low wages and obsolete equipment making vocational teachers lack appropriate experience, it is so difficult for vocational teachers to improve their expertise and to catch up new technologies.

Competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes describes the ability of teachers to integrate real work processes into vocational learning processes. It requires vocational teachers to consider the cooperative learning places and the content of the curriculum, which should contain vocational knowledge and skills in a practical manner. Teachers need to understand the processes of work in the real workplaces (factories, companies, businesses etc.) and be able to analyze the work processes. They need knowledge of job/work analysis in the field of vocational education and curriculum development. On the basis o results of job/work analysis, the teachers choose appropriate contents for curriculum and design the learning tasks in accordance with work duties, work tasks for vocational learners. In addition, teachers must try to find the possibilities of cooperation with other learning places beyond vocational school such as companies/ factories and try to exploit the chances of in-company training with these possibilities of cooperation. They also can use the opportunities of cooperation with colleagues from the other learning places. In countries that have the dual system in vocational training, such as Germany, it is easier for the teachers to find the cooperation with other factories/ companies, but in many other countries, particularly in developing countries (such as Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia etc. .), where there is no dual system, it requires the vocational teachers to make efforts to find the possibilities of cooperation with other factories / businesses/ companies. For this reason, the vocational teachers need to have the communicative competence and the flexibility to establish the personal relationships as well as the working relationships with colleagues in other working and learning places, with people in co-partners (companies, factories).In fact, there is a pressing issue in TVET field in developing countries, that the TVET graduates often have skill shortages or inappropriate skills and have to be trained again by the employer units. To contribute to shaking off this status, the competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes of vocational teachers needs to be added, compiled in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession. When the teachers possess this competence, they can help vocational learners acquire real skills or necessary work experience to meet the needs of employers and catch up new technologies in the companies/ factories, especially when the industrial companies nowadays constantly upgrade their technologies and have tendency to become environmentally friendly to attain the goal of sustainable development. With competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes, the vocational teachers are able to contribute not only to supplying the adequately qualified workers for recruitment, but also to promoting the dual system in their country. This competence also supports, consolidates professional expertise (professional competence), teaching competence and helps teachers constantly review the status of occupation to be learned and taught in flow of fastly rearranged work processes, update their knowledge and skills and through that, enhance their competence of  self-reflection and improving qualification.

Communicative and language competence involves the ability of teachers to use language and communicative skills to convey the learning content logically and attractively, to convince and to advice the vocational learners to educate them as well as to help them in learning processes, to moderate in the organization of open learning processes, to communicate effectively with parents of learners, with the colleagues as well as with the local and international co-partners (companies, factories, other vocational schools, regional or international organizations). This competence is an especially important competence for a teacher including the vocational teacher, because teachers always have to interact with other people/stakeholders (e.g. trainees, colleagues, businesses, factories, social services etc.). The interaction with the vocational learners happens in the process of conveying learning contents, controlling the classroom, consulting the learners. The communicative and language competence, therefore, supports the teaching competence and educating competence greatly. Knowledge of professional educational psychology and didactics along with the competence of self-reflection is very useful for the vocational teachers in improving this competence. In addition, the organization of teaching as well as the concrete curriculum is often determined in a collaboration with colleagues, in other words, in agreement with teaching staff, so the vocational teacher should be able to interact effectively with colleagues to co-make decisions and to share the instructional strategies to each other. The cooperation with other learning places (businesses, factories, companies) to link real work processes with professional learning processes also requires the negotiation skill of the vocational teachers. In a broader sense, nowadays the tendency of global cooperation plays a relevant role in all fields including TVET, for that, the vocational teachers should be able to use foreign languages besides communication skills to join in the international projects as well as to have international cooperative relationships to exchange the experiences and information, especially information about the technology changes as well as the new environmentally friendly technologies in field of TVET, through that they can improve their professional expertise. Thus, it can be stated that the communicative and language competence makes impacts on other competencies (in particular directly on the teaching competence and educating competence) and the vocational teachers need this competence to carry out their professional duties.

Competence of self-reflection and improving the qualifications refers to the abilities of teachers to reflect their own professional performance, the self-images, the professional goals, the professional ethics and/in order to improve the qualifications and professional quality. Vocational teachers should reflect on one’s own teaching result on the basis of analyzing and interpreting the pupils learning outcomes and the external results of the evaluations. Teachers should constantly control their professional competence (professional expertise), teaching competence, educating competence, communicative and language competence, competence of linking real  work processes with professional learning processes to improve these competencies during the process of execution of professional duties. They have to practice continuously and keep themselves up to date on new pedagogical theories, new technologies, especially the environmentally friendly technologies, as well as on the world of work. Lifelong learning is unavoidable task of vocational teachers, especially technical vocational teachers.

According to the above analysis, it can be stated that the pedagogical competence of vocational teachers is produced by the connection of all above networked competency domains that make impacts on each other and develop their effects with each other. These competency domains are based on (or influenced by) the below pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge and skills.

B. Educational basic knowledge:

Didactics (knowledge of teaching and learning process) supplies the deep knowledge of teaching objectives along with strategies of lesson planning, teaching contents, teaching methods (including concepts, concrete methods and teaching techniques), teaching materials, media, measures and processes of evaluation/ assessment, as well as the knowledge of learning process (learning theories, cognitive development, learning motivation, etc.).

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) relates to the application of didactics and pedagogical knowledge for teaching of a particular subject/ discipline/ occupation in consideration of the characteristics of this subject/ discipline/ occupation as well as the prior knowledge of learners and other matters of teaching and learning such as diversified teaching strategies, curriculum, instructional materials etc. PCK is compatible with Shulman’s theory (1986) about how the teacher can transform the subject matter into teaching (Schulman 1986; Koehler, Mishra 2009; Košinár 2014), but it should be emphasized, that this PCK relies not only on characteristics of scientific discipline but also on characteristics of vocational field.

Curricular knowledge refers to teacher’s deep knowledge not also about choosing and compiling of teaching program and teaching materials (Shulman 1986, Košinár 2014), but also about the developing vocational curriculum in consideration of the relationships between a vocational field and other relevant vocational fields, especially based on job analysis (also known as work analysis) accomplished by many different methods, such as DACUM (Collum 1985), observation of workers’ performance, interview and procedural review (Cascio &Aguinis 2005; Wilson 2007),job analysis worksheets; surveys, work assessments, JASP (Hartley, 1999) etc.

Pedagogical foundations and psychology cover the understanding of the philosophy of education and training; the intercultural, historical, sociological knowledge in terms of education; pedagogical psychology (developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, work psychology, features of trainees, features of vocational teachers such as ethics, skills, mission, interests, etc.), and consulting knowledge.

C. The additional knowledge and/or skills

Methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research: can help vocational teachers in doing research to improve their expertise.

Work – Technology – Education: provides theoretical basis in terms of relationships between work, technology and education.

Teaching technology: relates to knowledge and skills to teach with technology, from low-tech tools to high-tech tools such as presentation software, online learning etc.

etc.

The additional knowledge can be added and expanded according to the needs in reality.

4 Implications for the development of TVET-systems as a basis for the enhancement of the Greening

Technical vocational teachers contribute to producing worker resource in technical fields. The industrial wastes, the emission from obsolete technologies and the use of fossil fuels cause many serious environmental problems, so when the technical workers do not master new technologies and cannot operate their job in an environmentally friendly manner, they can contribute to causing environment pollution and climate change. Therefore, the training of highly skilled workforce with adequate capabilities and perception of protecting environment is very necessary. This goal cannot be achieved without eligible vocational teachers because the quality of vocational teachers affects the attainment of vocational learners directly. Along with above suggested model, some following initial implications at macro, meso and micro level are offered:

4.1 In terms of policies

At macro level, the governments should have the appropriate public funding for vocational education and training because vocational education plays a significant role when society today needs not only elite school but also mass school. This investment should include increasing vocational teacher’s salary (especially in developing countries, where the vocational teachers often do not have motivation to improve their competencies due to low salary which does not meet the needs of their life) to draw talented people into the field of vocational teaching, providing modern machines, equipments for vocational schools to facilitate efficient work regarding green technologies, renewable energy, new material etc. In addition, in developing countries, it is necessary to have efforts to improve institutional voids to compel industrial companies to comply with regulations regarding environment protection and to encourage these companies to cooperate with vocational schools to gradually build the dual system in field of TVET.

4.2 In terms of scientific research in vocational education

Using knowledge of methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research (mentioned as additional knowledge/skills in the above suggested model), the vocational teachers should do research in their subject frequently, besides carrying out their teaching duties, to master the up-to-date technologies with solutions of saving energy, protecting environment. On the other hand, the positive results of scientific research (at the companies, at the universities, in the institutes, etc.) regarding the green technology need to be transferred into vocational schools and the vocational teachers need to be coached based on these results of scientific research.

4.3 In terms of school administration and organization

School administrators should support vocational teachers to enhance their effective performance through providing them more pedagogical autonomy, helping them find relationship with companies/ factories on behalf of school/ institution, giving them opportunities/conditions to upgrade their expertise (for example: organizing professional advanced courses for frequently training vocational teachers, expanding the domestic and international cooperation so that vocational teachers have chances to update and exchange knowledge and experience of new technologies, especially environmentally friendly technologies, equipping with modern machinery as much as possible to facilitate process of working and cultivating of teachers etc.). Each vocational school should make efforts to build eligibility criteria to recruit teachers as well as to build accordant systems to control teacher’s competences, e.g. through feedback from pupils/ students, from enterprises or through controlling out-come quality. In addition, to organize competitions, movements and conferences regarding green technology and sustainable development in field of vocational teaching should be appreciated and expanded.

4.4 In terms of vocational teacher education

Applying the suggested model of competences with strengthened structure as an instrument, vocational teachers in the present era should be aware of their essential competences in order to be effective in the classroom as well as to fulfill new requirements of vocational teaching profession in the rapidly changing world in which the tendency of sustainable development is critical and unavoidable. With an insight into necessary competences, which they should or must acquire, vocational teachers should have cognizance of their own duties and responsibilities, when facing the world with fatal climate change and global warming. They should constantly self – reflect their performance to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses among the six stated competency domains to promote the strengths and improve the weaknesses to pursue their career professionally. They should commit themselves to cultivating six stated competence domains to ensure necessary capabilities to carry out their duties adequately. In vocational teacher education, the setting of training objectives should be implemented based on the accordant understanding of required competences of vocational teachers in a world of sustainable development.

4.5 In terms of engineer education and training

Securing the quality of engineer education is very significant, because vocational teachers cannot implement their main duties (teaching and educating) without their expertise, in particular when green technologies always require updated knowledge and skills from vocational teachers. Therefore, measures to ensure the quality of training engineers at technical universities should be built and strengthened. On the other hand, in engineer education as well as vocational teacher education and training, factors “life-long learning”, “learning of learning methods” and “scientific research methodology” should be taken into account in context of the fact that knowledge of human beings develops rapidly every day. The combination of professional expertise, pedagogical competencies and awareness of duties and responsibilities concerning environment protection will help vocational teachers promote their roles in their profession adequately.

4.6 In terms of cooperation of learning venues

Building the dual system in field of TVET is very necessary to improve the negative image of TVET in East and Southeast Asia, where the TVET graduates must be often trained again by the employers due to the lack of experience and due to the inadequate curriculum, which often has no relation with real work processes. The cooperation of vocational schools and companies will help not only the vocational learners, but also the vocational teachers in improving their competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes. The building of dual system cannot be based only on the effort of individual vocational teacher, but it also needs the support from policy system, from the strategies of school administration.

4.7 In terms of development of curriculum, development of learning materials and development of assessment materials

The curriculum for VTE needs to be compiled in respect of the green skills of vocational teachers with their cross – influences. Due to the interweaving and the ongoing interaction between these competences in a strong structure, it is required to have the certain unification in terms of content regarding the greening on different subjects (didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, curriculum development, pedagogical psychology etc.). For example:

• On the subject of vocational pedagogical psychology, it is essential to emphasize the roles and the interaction of the above suggested green skills when discussing features of vocational teachers;
• On the subject of didactics or pedagogical content knowledge, it is necessary to mention the greening when discussing learning objectives, learning contents, teaching methods, learning evaluations: (1) Learning objectives: It is relevant to discuss, which learning objectives (in terms of knowledge, in terms of skills, in terms of awareness) regarding the greening that the vocational learners should achieve; (2) Learning contents: It is essential to emphasize, how important it is, when the up-to-date technologies with the solutions of saving energy and environmental protection are conveyed as learning contents for vocational learners; (3) Teaching methods: Besides of discussing general teaching methods in education, it is also interesting and actual to discuss, which teaching forms could be used to wake the awareness of environmental protection of the vocational learners up; (4) Learning evaluations: Besides of discussing the forms and criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding expertise as the observable and measurable behaviors of vocational learners (the first factor), it is necessary to discuss the forms or criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding the greening (the second factor) of vocational learners. The development of assessment materials for vocational learners, which integrate two mentioned factors, is also a relevant theme for educators in the present era of sustainable development.
• On the subject of vocational curriculum development: The vocational teachers need to be conveyed the method to develop the vocational curriculum based on the results of job/ work analysis in respect of modern technology with solutions of saving energy and environmental protection in this occupation. The learning materials for vocational learners also need to be compiled based on this spirit.

5 Conclusion

In Vietnam, the awareness of environmental protection is rather low and the sector of green economy is still small. Now, there are neither the green occupations nor the requirements of green skills for green occupations in Vietnam (TVET-Vietnam Organization 2015). However, Vietnamese government has launched the Green Growth Strategy to deal with the environmental and socio-economic challenges towards sustainable development, in which, the Greening TVET is held for an important issue to develop an adequate workforce with green skills to meet the requirements of Green economy development. A series of activities on “Greening TVET” in the frame of the Vietnamese – German Programme Reform of TVET in Vietnam took place, e.g.: “Greening TVET” at the Green-Biz 2013 exhibition; The International Leadership Training (ILT) on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Job”; Seven Vietnamese young professionals graduated from GIZ-supported training on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Jobs”; “Green TVET” on a mission; Green skills development – essential for the transition to green growth; etc. (TVET – Vietnam Organization, 2015). It can be stated, that the Green Skills development for the existing occupations and for new occupations in Vietnam as well as in other countries in East and Southeast Asia is very crucial. The suggested model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers for greening TVET and the above initial recommendations could contribute to consolidating the professional profile of vocational teaching occupation and to process of Green Skills development in the field of TVET.

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Citation

Diep, P.C. & Hartmann, M. (2016). Green Skills in Vocational Teacher Education – a model of pedagogical competence for a world of sustainable development. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-19. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/diep_hartmann_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016)

This article proposes a change of perspective on TVET in Asia in the context of the current discourse on sustainable development and the greening of economies in the region. It picks up on the debate around the greening of TVET, taking a closer look at the challenges faced by two countries: the Philippines and Vietnam. A necessary repositioning of TVET, and especially the greening of TVET, is suggested through an exploration of agriculture and manufacturing–two industries that traditionally account for most of the labour force in Asia and which, at the same time, are among the biggest environmental polluters. We highlight the need for non-formal, on-the-job training in the plant and in the field and for the inclusion of traditional industries, the main polluters, in the discussion on the greening of industries. A case is made for a practical, non-academic approach to training that closely links the demands of the market with the non-formal learning needs of ordinary workers and farmers. Based on best-practices, this article introduces the concept of an integrated service called “WeTrace” that contributes to the greening of TVET through a hands-on, field-based approach. The article provides an overview of practical experiences with the implementation of WeTrace and strategies for non-formal learning supported by smart technology, as applied to sustainable agriculture in the Philippines and Vietnam.

Keywords: green economy, green skills, sustainable development, supply and value chain, unskilled and semi-skilled workers, farmers, agriculture and food production, traceability, standards, smart technology

1 Introduction

Just before the 2015 United Nation Climate Change Conference in Paris, the headline of China Daily “Asia faces catastrophic future unless leaders at Paris summit agree to cut emissions” (China Daily 2015, 1) proclaimed a clear message emphasizing the urgent need for action. In acknowledging that urgency, this article examines some options for action in the greening of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in Asia. Of note, UNESCO-UNVEVOC has been engaged in recent efforts to strengthen TVET in the Asiatic region, developing the skills and knowledge required for the transition to greener economies and  societies (UNESCO 2015). It promises to be a long road, and not without obstacles along the way.

Despite the global discussions, the efforts of policy makers, the support of international development programs, the investment of international companies in select projects (such as renewables, effluent systems, or solid waste management), the fact remains that most young people employed in the developing and future markets of Asia are unskilled or under-qualified and often without access to training. How can we integrate that major pool of labour force for the challenge of greening TVET on a larger scale? This article not only tackles this issue, but offers a different perspective on the greening of TVET by highlighting the approaches of industrial sectors which often appear resistant to change. The targets formulated in the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN 2015) should not be limited to the greening of formal credentials in technical education. Perhaps even more important is the embedding of green skills across all industrial processes through strategies for life-long or continuous learning.The development of a robust TVET system in Asia is still ongoing, but driven by global needs there is increasing pressure to address training for sustainable development that includes not a minority, but the majority of those involved in economic production.

2 Skills and TVET for sustainable development

2.1 Green economy, skills development and TVET

The debate on greening TVET stems from the sustainable development agenda and is linked with the concept of a “green economy”. Whereas there are many proposed definitions for the term green economy, they all emphasize responsible economic practices that support further economic growth and positive social development, while valuing and handling natural resources responsibly.

Since 2008 the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has supported the agenda of a green economy. Its Green Economy Initiative defines a:

“[…] green economy as one that results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities. In its simplest expression, a green economy can be thought of as one which is low carbon, resource efficient and socially inclusive.

Practically speaking, a green economy is one whose growth in income and employment is driven by public and private investments that reduce carbon emissions and pollution, enhance energy and resource efficiency, and prevent the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. These investments need to be catalysed and supported by targeted public expenditure, policy reforms and regulation changes.”(UNEP 2015)

The TVET sector has the capacity to leverage employment opportunities and economic productivity, competitiveness and quality as well as meeting the challenges of economic change and development (Montague 2013, 210). According to the UNEP characteristics of a green economy, a TVET system should incorporate environmental protection as well as resource efficiency, risk management and social inclusion. As the Asian economies are still striving for stable development and increased industrialisation, the adoption of a green economy and green TVET-systems must be based  on the principle of “growing cleaner without growing slower” (Jagannathan 2013, 266). Such changes have unprecedented consequences for teacher training, curricula and training methods.

Notable milestones in the discourse on sustainable development, the greening of the economy and the implications for TVET include the Brundtland Report (laying the foundations of the sustainable development era), the UN Agenda 21 and the Rio+ Conferences, and the decision of the General Assembly of the United Nations to declare the years 2005 – 2014 as the UN Decade for Sustainable Development (BMZ 2013, 28). UNESCO and UNEVOC, the United Nations agencies responsible for setting a global direction and facilitating consensus for education and training, stated in their 2004 Bonn declaration: “since education is considered the key to effective development strategies, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) must be the master key that can alleviate poverty, promote peace, conserve the environment, improve the quality of life for all and help achieve sustainable development.” (UNESCO/UNEVOC 2004, 1)

This statement pointedly emphasises the significance of quality technical and vocational education and training for individuals, businesses and societies. A well-planned and well-implemented TVET system extends its influence into the social, economic and the ecological spheres. As such, the distinction that is often made between education and TVET for sustainable development (ESD/TVETSD) on the one hand, and green education or green TVET on the other hand, is considered an artificial one. Both concepts serve the higher purpose of a more sustainable future. Hence we use the terms interchangeably, as does the TVET expert and Head of the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training Shyamal Majumdar (Majumdar 2010).

2.2 Skill shortages versus need for green skills in TVET

Asian countries, especially those in Southeast Asia, with highly dynamic economies, are being challenged in their position as global powerhouses of production by the practical implications of greening those economies. For many years, massive expansion and exploitation of natural resources have improved their economic performance. However, now they, like the rest of the world, are facing the consequences of pollution, production methods that pose health hazards and ecological harm, and unrestrained growth (JFien et al. 2013, 255f.). They no longer just need to provide the necessary manpower to meet production demands of a globalised market, but also need to catch up on quality requirements, production standards and legal compliance frameworks that are increasingly reforming the exchange of goods and services. They are also under pressure to prepare themselves for the risks of climate change as well as develop strategies for more resilient economic and social systems. In order to accommodate all this, these countries need to redefine and rework their educational systems. This especially applies to their technical and vocational education and training, if they want to retain and improve their competitive position in the global market and contribute to a greener economy.

The movement towards a greener economy will undoubtedly change the labour market. While further advances in green technology and efficient automation, or the elimination of high-emission/pollution industries may result in the demise of many jobs and professions, other jobs will need to be modified. Existing jobs may need a broader set of sustainability and greener skills and practices, or require ‘up-skilling’. New jobs may need to be created to achieve a greening of societies and industry sectors (Majumdar 2011).

In this paper, we adopt a holistic definition of green skills: “What is meant here are skills, abilities and the willingness to recognise and to assess the direct and indirect effects of occupational activities on the environment as well as on the living and working conditions of other human beings (of present and future generations) and to avoid negative effects as much as possible.” (BMZ 2013, 28)

Many publications on the greening of TVET focus on qualifications that need to be acquired through academic careers, higher education in the engineering disciplines, or jobs that require so-called “high-skilled” workers with several years of intensive training. This focus aligns with the general current high cultural and societal value placed on tertiary education as compared to vocational education or apprenticeship. We suggest that the focus be shifted towards a broader and more inclusive definition of global labour. The TVET community needs to promote awareness of the demand for sustainability and green skills, and not only in new professions like the bio-energy sector. In every industry or production cycle, natural resources and chemical inputs are used, and emissions and wastes generated—in growing vegetables, manufacturing shoes, or construction. Each worker engaged in these value chains, regardless of their educational level, has an impact on the production and consumption cycle. High-level policies, strategic plans, or innovative technologies will not have the impact hoped for, unless the workers on the ground have acquired the necessary green skills to put these ideas into practice. Without this capacity for change, the skills shortages of today become the skills gaps of tomorrow (Montague 2013, 209f; 219f)

This article focuses on the labour force in Vietnam and the Philippines, which consists to a large extent of workers in manufacturing and agriculture (PH – agriculture: 30%, industry: 16%; VN – agriculture: 48%, industry: 21% (CIA 2015)). Only a small percentage of these workers have received comprehensive formal education and training. Most, are so-called unskilled and semi-skilled workers, or workers who achieved their skills through informal or non-formal education and training while on the job or outside the workplace (Martinez-Fernandez et al 2013, 166f). These people are also among those who most feel the negative impacts of unsustainable production practices. In their workplace they might be confronted with the overuse of chemicals jeopardising their health, or on their farms and fields their livelihood is threatened by soil erosion or recurring floods.

For these target groups the most likely starting point in skill transformation will be enhancing and expanding their existing work skills through knowledge transfer and practical training. This might focus on new work routines that have a positive effect on their livelihood and, on the larger scale, contribute to a green economy and sustainable development. Although this approach may seem  very basic or detail-oriented, small changes in everyday work practice for all employees in a company, or on a farm, will cumulatively build towards a whole new core of sustainability practices, not only in individual businesses, but in the supply chains fed by these workers and producers through their labour. These new capabilities will, for example, entail different practices in the handling and use of chemicals, different routines for waste management or increased attention to safety and health protection in daily work activities. In agriculture, for example, this might also include adjusted protocols for soil protection, or the choice of seeds and crops that are more resilient to changing climatic conditions. For each area of skill development, the initial first step towards long-term greening is always to first raise awareness as to where existing practices intersect with matters of sustainable production and consumption, as well as building a sense of ethical behaviour and responsibility for one’s own environment and that of the community. Then it is possible to build on this and train for technical skills in the actual production process.

To summarise:

• TVET iskey to implementing a global greening concept based on national strategies for industry
• New green and greener skills are urgently needed for bothmodern technical and traditional sectors
• The goals are ambitious, but there are significant opportunities for the personal and professional development of the individual in the workforce.

3 Challenges of greening TVET in Southeast Asia

3.1 Background for greening TVET in the Philippines and Vietnam

While the global community is beginning to realise the need for green vocational skills and greener TVET systems and curricula, these systems and their affiliated institutions face problems regarding the quality, financing and accessibility of skill development for all citizens. One challenge is that of incorporating new green educational goals into already strained education systems (BMZ 2013, 30). This may require redefinition and augmentation of existing curricula and qualifications; creating extended curricula or developing completely new ones for existing jobs, and even defining new vocational qualifications for new green jobs created as part of a modernisation strategy for a specific industry, or the economy at large. These challenges apply equally to all the diverse forms of vocational education and training including formal TVET schools, technical colleges, training in the workplace, apprenticeships and other informal and non-formal settings (Maclean et al. 2013, 5ff.).

The challenge is how best to align the required changes and developments in TVET with national sustainability strategies. The authors focus on the Philippines and Vietnam as case studies. Each country has adopted its own policies and strategies; having committed themselves more than 20 years ago to the UN Agenda 21. They have also each set their own strategy for a national path towards sustainable development. Vietnam adopted its newest “National Green Growth Strategy” in 2012. The Philippines addressed their plans for a greener future in their 1990 “Philippines strategy for sustainable development (PSSD)” supplemented in 2004 with their “Enhanced Philippine Agenda 21 (EPA)”. Although these, and many more policies and agendas, are in place regarding sustainability in both national development plans and economic strategies, the current state of the environment, economy and education of the countries does not reflect these theoretical and strategic inputs. Both countries are experiencing significant problems regarding environmental issues (e.g., air pollution in the megacity Manila, water contamination in the Mekong delta, landslides, coastal erosion and floods). As compared to the Philippines, Vietnam has been on a more steady path to growth and a stable economic outlook, but both countries still face major challenges like inflation, underemployment and comparatively low gross national income per capita (CIA 2015; UNDP 2014). To tackle these challenges, section 4 of this article proposes a “walk the talk” approach for greening that targets the unskilled and semi-skilled labour forces in the main production sectors, agriculture and manufacturing, in both Asian countries.

3.2 The interrelationship between greening TVET and the economy in Vietnam and the Philippines

The rapid development of economies in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region has resulted in the necessity of permanent, economic, structural change and a great need for a highly-qualified skilled labour force. The association of these countries into a single common market not only affects more than 600 million people, it is one of the most outstanding and challenging events in the history of the region. The ASEAN motto “One Vision, One Caring and One Sharing Community” reflects the willingness of this community of states to co-operate politically and economically. One of the three pillars of ASEAN is the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), the goal of which is to transform ASEAN into a single market and single production base by the end of 2015. One of its main objectives is to increase the mobility of skilled labour in the region by co-operating in three main areas: a) the recognition of professional qualifications, b) regional human resource development and capacity building, and c) the integration of industries across the region to promote regional sourcing (Kunz 2014).

At the plant and at the field level, there have also been significant changes. In the last two decades Vietnam has achieved remarkable poverty reduction and economic growth mainly through mass production industries such as apparel, shoes, and assembly of appliances—industries  that require a lower-skilled labour force. Now facing the transformation from mass, to quality production, Vietnam claims a shortage in skilled labour, mainly in technical jobs. Only 19% of workers have received any form of job training, only 6% have an apprenticeship of at least two years. Almost 24 million workers (around 80% of the workforce) are low-skilled or unskilled in Vietnam. Seven million people – more than 20% of the economically active population – work in the original green sector, agriculture (ADB 2014).

Food production is both a global concern as well as a global, interconnected market. By 2050 the world needs not only to produce 40 – 70% more food on the same surface of agricultural land, but adapt to the additional threat of climate change. The Philippines are already one of the most affected countries in this regard. In addition, the nation has no functional strategy on food security as compared to Vietnam and other ASEAN countries. Up to 40% of the economic population works in this primary sector which contributes only 10% to the national GDP. Small landholders farm an average of one hectare. In Europe, where only 3% work in this sector, farmers cultivate an average of 26 hectares.

Since the 1990s the Philippine archipelago has seen significant growth in the service sector. In addition it has approximately 10 million Filipinos registered as overseas workers. Most of them are skilled, even having tertiary education, but cannot find job opportunities in the Philippines. This brain-drain (Alburo & Abella2002) is related less to the so-called phenomena of over-population, and more to political and economic strategies resulting in limited work opportunities.

So how do these scenarios affect TVET in the ASEAN region? Of course, TVET plays an important role in enabling regional socio-economic development. Countries are in the process of strengthening and reforming TVET to meet the demands of economic growth and competitiveness, as well as societal change. Policy development is one critical aspect in repositioning TVET and further developing its responsiveness to the greening agenda. However, it is difficult to compare TVET systems across jurisdictions as shown in the example of Vietnam and the Philippines. Not only are there different political agendas, but the collection of empirical evidence for comparative analysis is difficult. As a result, it is not easy to formulate a common strategy and vision among ASEAN countries for the reform of TVET.

For example, it has often been questioned as to whether it is easier to establish a new green job profile, such as for solar, wind or biomass technology, rather than greening existing curricula, such as that for agriculture or the textile industry. Given the outcomes of the climate change summit in Paris 2015, there is no doubt that clean/renewable energy topics are a matter of some urgency and need to be introduced into current TVET systems. To assist in this process, international organisations such as UNESCO, UNEVOC and other development agencies are developing strategies to help build awareness and capacity in TVET. As a result, Vietnam has started to invest in new technologies and is collaborating with international companies to jointly introduce green technologies to the market. At the same time, government training institutions are adopting new greener technologies and a focus on science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) as a foundation for technologies is helping to pave the way for expansion in the technical green sector. In contrast, in the Philippines, the implementation of new green technologies is limited by the poor quality of training facilities and weak labour market intelligence. Furthermore, the low quality and lack of relevance of TVET, particularly for school-based and privately-run programmes (UNEVOC 2014), is a limiting factor. Thus between the two countries, TVET in Vietnam is viewed as more credible due to its investment in the engineering of technical products. In contrast, the strong service sector in the Philippines, including the booming ICT industry, has mostly recruited graduates from tertiary education. There are certain small initiatives in green technology and related qualifications, but these activities make up only a small percentage of TVET activity and niche markets.

Different approaches to greening are also apparent in the context of environmental compliance in mass production, such as the apparel or the shoe sector, as well as in the movement to sustainable agriculture. As a result of the shift of the Chinese apparel industry to Vietnam, the country has started to review its environmental policy in order to remain competitive (Greer 2014). Textile dyeing and finishing have a significant environmental impact. The Philippines has only a small number of apparel and shoe producers today as compared to the boom in the eighties and nineties when China took over with its then, low wage policies. Of necessity, the demand in global trade for cleaner production is rising, but both industry and trade have been slow to respond, and for almost two decades practices have been found wanting. Today, greener production practices are becoming a competitive advantage and need to be embedded in TVET as a cross-sectoral subject. The question for low and unskilled workers in the ASEAN region is: how to best train them? Outside or inside the TVET system?

That results into the following findings:

• There is a common vision for the greening of TVET in ASEAN countries, but the respective implementation strategies differ.
• The level of greening in TVET depends on the particular economic dynamics and structure in a given jurisdiction.
• The greening process in farming and the textile and shoe industry is still marginalized, despite the fact that it is the source of livelihood for the majority of the population.

4 The challenge of green skill development in ASEAN

Criticism of the TVET sector by industry is not uncommon. Training centres are slow to respond to new requirements and higher standards for training and education. Communication and collaboration between the TVET sector and industry needs to improve significantly to resolve these differences. As stated, introducing new green technical innovation needs substantively modified, or new curricula and this adaptation will be a challenge for TVET.

As noted, the majority of workers and farmers who still dominate the labour market in total figures work in industries characterised by low technical skill and/or low wages. Both the manufacturing and agriculture sectors have a heavy environmental impact through pollution of eco-systems, and training and education to mitigate these impacts is still limited. Despite the introduction of numerous new standards and initiatives through global trade and industry, as well as the impetus of Rio in 1992 and cumulated knowledge around climate change, real progress in moving towards cleaner production processes has already taken too long. The external pressure to implement best practices is still insufficient to effect real change. 

Yet small, incremental changes are possible through education reform. Environmental and social compliance for the apparel industry does not require scientific knowledge for workers, but rather a systematic approach to implementing new standards in every-day practice. In this process, non-formal education is often neglected; however, it is appropriate in meeting the identified training needs of workers and farmers. Workers need to be trained on-the-job in their own working environment following a methodological-didactical approach that best relates to their learning abilities as well as addressing the issues of access and costs. The learning process must permeate the entire value chain in order to build understanding of the interdependencies and causality of different actions and environmental impacts. It is not only automation and internalization of manufacturing procedures that need to be addressed, but also the move towards full traceability, in order to verify compliance with environmental regulations at every step in the production process. Despite Western-driven trade and industry groups promoting their ‘best’ practices, the highly industrialised countries have not followed up on their promise of greener and more transparent production. Asia has the opportunity of not only avoiding their mistakes, but modelling ‘next’ practices after the environmental depletion of the last twenty years.

At that state of discussion it makes sense to review the historic dimension of greening. The Western industrialised world has developed a lot of best practice green solutions and renewable energy technology in the last two decades, but it has also not learned from its failures. In 1972 the Club of Rome expressed in its publication “The limits of growth” that human activities could grow large enough to alter basic natural processes of the globe. Today we routinely observe, acknowledge, and discuss the ozone hole, destruction of marine fish stocks, climate change and other global problems (Meadow 2004). After more than 40 years, the West has to conclude that the prediction of 1972 was correct. Given this, there is no alternative – neither in Asia, nor in Europe, nor America – to facilitating green and sustainable development as a holistic concept. Innovative forms of TVET could be the vehicle for knowledge transfer that contributes to a better future.    

5 Best practice example in agriculture

The German company, Knowledge Intelligence Applications GmbH (KIAG), has started to share its industry experience to the benefit of the agriculture and textile industries in emerging and developing markets. With the support of German public-private partnerships including KfW/DEG, sequa and KIAG, the WeTrace initiative (www.wetrace.org) is presented here as a best practice solution to demonstrate how smart technology can be linked with non-formal education and training; in this instance, for innovation in agriculture. Two case studies are explored here that illustrate the comparative differences between two ASEAN countries through documentation of their individual strategies and intentions in implementing policies for green agriculture.

Everybody depends on agriculture. It feeds our entire population and produces fibre for clothing, feed for livestock and bioenergy. Hence it is not surprising that in Germany alone there are nine established training occupations that require substantial TVET for workers in this area. In the developing world, agriculture contributes significantly to the GDP, leads the way to poverty reduction and accounts for the majority of employment opportunities, especially for women. Agriculture also has one of the highest potentials for reducing carbon emissions and helping vulnerable people adapt to climate change. (Farming First, 2015). Countries like the Philippines and Vietnam have to improve their agricultural production and gain more value from it. Food security and food safety are major issues. Global estimates suggest  31 main hazards were responsible for 600 million foodborne illnesses and 420,000 deaths in 2010 (WHO 2015); and the majority of the global population lives in Asia.

Perceptions of food production differ in the two countries. Vietnam is keen on producing its own food, and developing export markets. In the Philippines, the Retail Association claims that up to 75% of fresh food sold in retail is imported. Quality is mostly indicated by price and appearance. Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), as a methodological process to produce safe and healthy crops, is in its infancy. Although the Philippine Department of Agriculture has started to review organic food production, there is, as yet, no certification and independent testing body to verify organic status. In 2006, ASEAN GAP was disseminated across all ASEAN countries and was established as an acknowledged common standard with minor national differences. Further developments to improve the standard for food quality are ongoing. In 2014, the first small-landholders in the Philippines were certified by the Bureau of Agriculture and Food Production Standards (BAPFS).

Vietnam introduced its GAP version under Viet GAP first in 2008. Subsequently, thousands of farmers countrywide are now Viet GAP certified. GLOBAL G.A.P., as well as European organic standards, have also successfully been introduced in the country. There is still room for improvement, but the necessity of improving agriculture through sustainable practices, for instance by minimizing chemical inputs such as fertilizer, or pesticide use through methods of integrated pest management, appear to be   progressing more rapidly  than in the Philippines.

In the Philippines, technical training and education in agriculture is a field divided between the Department of Agriculture (DA) and the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). There is no comprehensive or modular training covering the whole spectrum of farming. Small-landholders’ activities to improve farming on a more sustainable level are mostly supported by NGO initiatives.

In 2008, the Government of Vietnam endorsed the introduction of a standards-based approach to TVET in order to improve the quality and relevance of its vocational training provision for rural workers. The aim of the Rural Training Program ‘is to improve the quality of rural labour in meeting the requirements of industrialization and modernization of the agriculture sector and rural areas.” (ADB 2014, 51). In shifting vocational training for rural workers from a supply-driven approach to a demand-driven approach, the program seeks to provide vocational training for approximately one million rural workers per year, including training for 100,000 village civil servants. It also aims to improve the quality and efficiency of vocational training so as to generate employment, increase incomes, contribute to restructuring the rural economy and labour force, and support the industrialization and modernization of agriculture. The program is not without its critics. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) claims that there has been insufficient analysis of the training needs; resulting in lack of clarity of purpose and a weak business case. (ADB 2014).

The training content of the Vietnamese TVET system includes technical objectives, but does not extend to the complexity of sustainable practices in the value chain. This could be easily resolved. The GAP standard in both the Philippines and Vietnam for numerous crops is clearly structured. It could be adapted and included in the Vietnamese curriculum if the relevant institutions – Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs (MoLISA) and its General Directorate for Vocational Training (GDVT) – would opt to close this industry- market divide. This also applies to sustainable and organic practices that are increasingly in demand in the metropolitan areas of Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi.

The WeTrace initiative has adopted the approach described above for the Philippines and Vietnam, despite structural differences in the industry between the two countries.  Production follows the same procedures and requirements within the different value chains. The development process for the integrated service consists of the five pillars described below that have been built on experiences in the field and have proven to be an effective foundation for greening and learning in agriculture.

5.1 Pillar one: Standard analysis and market requirements

The WeTrace process begins with a standard comparison of national and international requirements across the entire agricultural spectrum. This also includes a review of the TVET agricultural curricula in the respective countries. As well, organic practices or fair trade protocols, are integrated, if the market requires this. After an in-depth analysis of practices with local experts and farmers, the body of knowledge is systematically organised in parallel with the supply chain – from ‘field to fork‘. Translation of the standards into the local language is essential if there is to be a correlation with the working reality in a specific area.

5.2 Pillar two: Supply chain analysis with farmers

By transecting the defined path of the supply chain all players (e.g., for agriculture: input supplier, farmer, rural worker, logistics, collection centre, and buyer) are engaged in the participatory approach to process review and skill development. With the aid of questionnaires, all steps within the supply chain are reviewed and discussed in order to identify critical weak points such as selection of growing conditions, quality inputs, pest management and post-harvest procedures. For the farmers, the process helps to facilitate a better understanding of their own unique environment, as well as the development of learning strategies that address the weak points in their systems. Using a step-by-step process,  and the use of custom learning materials, farmers develop skills that enable them to contribute to making the supply chain more efficient and a curriculum emerges that is shaped by the working reality of the farmer-participants.

5.3 Pillar three: Web-based traceability tool

Access to smart phones and IT is very common among farmers in the ASEAN region. Capitalising on this infrastructure, WeTrace has developed a traceability tool (including an offline and online version) which covers the whole supply chain. Similar to the supply chain analysis, the farmers participate actively in the development process as they have to operate the traceability tool. Farmers have their own farm book where all their actions can be documented. Symbols guide farmers, not only while documenting actions, but also allowing them to assess their own performance. The tool also provides a database for quantitative data—the purchase and use of inputs, master data of the farm, climate data to assess changes related to natural conditions, etc. Groups of farmers or cooperatives producing for a certain buyer/market have the opportunity to forward all their data to a central hub, in order to guide distribution and sales, as well as to provide regular updates to the quality assurance processes that promote sustainable, safe and healthy fresh food produce. The goal is to implement an effective system for a closed supply chain with assurances that both market quality and quantity are in compliance with environmental standards.

5.4 Pillar four: Blended learning

IT programs provide tailor-made tools to train people and help them internalise the concepts of quality and, in particular, green quality. However, they cannot be the only means of learning. As already mentioned, a good curriculum is fundamental to the learning process. Using established curriculum, so-called compliance officers are trained to assist farmers in their daily routine. The approach is based on a monitoring/advisory model, extending assistance to farmers, rather than directing them. Farmers receive feedback on the effectiveness of the corrective actions used to improve their current practices. By working across the entire value chain, it’s also possible to communicate further findings effectively such as problems in market relations or the need for better compliance with occupational health and safety requirements. Agricultural markets are fast changing and the training must respond accordingly as part of a continuous cycle. Today the modern farmer is not only a grower. He is in business and needs to protect and sustain his main capital: the environment. Alternating training between field assistance and (open source) software applications through smart technologies is helping to build sustainable farming practices. Based on findings that a farmer in Vietnam learns differently from his Philippine counterpart, KIAG has also started to modify the methodological-didactical approach; working with the faculty of Education of the Technical University of Dortmund/Germany. Non-formal learning is thus considered as a continuous cycle that requires the involvement of multiple stakeholders with differing perspectives.

5.5 Pillar five: Business Intelligence for complex monitoring

WeTrace has been in use since 2014 as a training and performance tool and while farmers are excited to use modern, smart technology it has also changed the way they do business. They can now input both qualitative and quantitative data into their smartphones and tablets recording their farming activities. These data serve as the basis for providing them with business intelligence and its associated benefits.

Business Intelligence (BI) can be defined as a set of techniques and tools for the transformation of raw data into meaningful and useful information for business analysis. Buyers receive the data they need to set their orders; they value the system‘s inherent quality assurances and trust the business relationship with the farmer. This results in a stronger position for the farmers, enabling them to not only  set their own prices, but also protecting them from daily price fluctuations driven by buyers. These significant incentives are what has drawn small-landholders to work with the WeTrace system. Furthermore, development programs maintained by government and non-government organisations can also be better monitored by interpreting and analysing the performance data.

In comparison, the Vietnamese market is much more advanced. Farmers produce larger quantities than in the Philippines. In addition, they are better organized in the context of producer cooperatives, contract farming, and the newest trends of closed supply chains owned and managed by retailers. With more players, larger areas under cultivation and obvious distinct regional differences, the option of comparing correlations of production data through use of WeTrace is valuable. Quality seeds can be better selected to correspond with specific soil characteristics; irrigation systems can be better optimised, and post-harvest procedures can be redesigned to find efficiencies. The effects of crop rotation and shifting cultivation as options to maintain soil fertility, as well as soil protection through use of cover crops can be better measured and reported. In addition, tracking laboratory results can serve to improve sustainable and organic practice. BI is under continuous development and promises a local, regional, and national overview for screening and monitoring rural development in the light of sustainable practices. In short, WeTrace is a tool which is gaining traction in the agricultural sector, with its capacity to not only stimulate and support the greening of production practices, but because of its capacity to provide continuous support via smart technologies to low-skilled or unskilled workers. 

The five pillars of WeTrace are not only useful for agriculture, but also relevant for workers in manufacturing/mass-production. As with the agricultural sector, there needs to be a way of embedding green and social subjects across the training system and in particular, in continuous or lifelong learning. Smart technologies may be particularly useful in supporting industries that need to adapt even minimal standards for sustainable production.  They can help to close the communication and information gap through innovative forms of training and delivery. While face-to-face learning, with its strong social component, will remain an important element in training programs, the WeTrace approach, which focuses on non-formal education and training, could be an important tool in adopting smart solutions to make industrial processes more transparent and greener. It might take some time for TVET partners to adopt this new technology for training and education. At least farmers and workers are open to innovation.

6 Conclusions

Given the interrelationship between the greening of TVET and market demand for greener products and services, the function of TVET should not be limited to the transfer of technical knowledge for new job profiles in areas such as renewable energy. TVET should also be a contributor to strategies that promote the integration of principles of sustainable development into life-long learning. This approach is particularly important for those who have little or no access to a laddered educational system. Green/sustainable development is a cross-sectoral issue of growing significance in the world of work (especially in agriculture and labour-intensive manufacturing). It will take time for TVET and the entire educational system to more effectively match the specific demands of traditional and modern industries as they negotiate the greening process. Nevertheless climate change requires immediate action.

The political dimension of TVET can be seen in our comparison of the Vietnamese and Philippine models. Vietnam, as a country that focuses on its industrial production, has already achieved remarkable outcomes in graduate performance, although TVET as a concept is relatively young. Nevertheless, current skills shortages may need to be addressed differently. In order to ensure critical skills gaps are met, a combined approach of TVET and life-long-learning might be the most effective means of greening traditional industries.

An association like ASEAN has a common vison and policy, but the greening of TVET will likely lead to a diversity of approaches across jurisdictions. Common guiding principles are needed in order to successfully address technical issues such as teacher training, curriculum development and training delivery.

Asian economies need to assess their specific capabilities in order to minimize the environmental impact of production processes. They must be willing to make compromises in order to assure a better, sustainable future, recognising that the concept of unlimited economic growth does, indeed seem to have run its course. New tools such as industry standards have been developed in order to support and promote sustainable production—standards that have been designed for people and not for factories and machinery. The idea of transparency within the supply chain is not without challenges, but one not insurmountable in light of new approaches to knowledge transfer and learning in the context of sustainable development. High-tech industries are already speaking of the next industrial age—industry 4.0 and smart solutions can be adapted to any industry if the right values are assigned to both the environment and to people. This is an opportunity to legitimise and promote non-formal learning using technology that will be soon accessible to the majority of people in Asia. As a global community we need to reassess our perspectives on traditional education – it has enormous capacity for leveraging change. Educational reform may be the most important tool in the future of greening and sustainability.

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Citation

Baumgarten, K. & Kunz, S. (2016). Re-thinking greening TVET for traditional industries in Asia – the integration of a less-skilled labour force into green supply chains. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-17. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/baumgarten_kunz_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016).

Canada’s colleges are adept at developing new skills training and educational programs to meet changing labour market needs. The challenge of responding to a greening economy, environmental sustainability and climate change and mitigation is different. In this, colleges face the prospect of systemic transformation of education and training programs, with limited market intelligence, and an increasing sense of urgency. This paper explores how colleges are leading and responding; with examples of new programs and program modifications, curriculum innovation, new strategies for teaching and learning, new types of partnership and a vigorous applied research agenda.  Advancing Knibb’s frameworks we identify three phases of development that characterize curriculum greening in Canada’s colleges and institutes; some strategies for curriculum adaptation; propose a typology approach that can be used to help manage the curriculum transformation process, and suggest some systems level changes that would facilitate curriculum greening.

This paper provides an overview of pan-Canadian college efforts to meet the skills needs of a greening economy and climate change mitigation, and the evolving strategies for curriculum design, teaching, learning and applied research. It focusses on the 137 publicly funded providers of technical/technology training; the colleges, cégeps, (Quebec’s Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel), institutes, and polytechnics, (herein after referred to as colleges), which serve over 3,000 communities, Canada wide. (Of note, TVET is not a term in common usage in Canada.) Established with a mandate to support economic development in each of their regions, most have distinct institutional cultures, areas of specialization, applied research programs, industry/business partnerships and international programs.

Keywords: greening, Canada, college curriculum, green skills, green economy, green jobs, environment

1 Introduction

In examining current practices, this paper evaluates: the status of, and growth prospects for, Canada’s greening economy and greener jobs; the demand for green skills and skills for sustainability and the definition, development and nature of those skills, across and between sectors.

Then it assesses: the ways in which federal and provincial policy, has shaped colleges’ sustainability strategies and the preparation of an appropriately skilled work force; current strategies for the greening of college curriculum, and the challenges of, and approaches to, the systematic design and evaluation of that curriculum, together with some frameworks to help facilitate that process. It concludes with a commentary on: the ways colleges can be more effective as agents of change in addressing the urgencies of a greening economy. The focus of this discussion is on leveraging academic programming and applied research in the interests of a greening economy; college green campus initiatives have generally been well documented. The paper proposes that new and different ways of thinking around curriculum design, development and modification are critical to the success of transitioning programs to a greener economy. It proposes a number of different strategies including approaches to curriculum adaptation, a green skills typology and some systems level changes that would facilitate change.

2 Factors influencing the greening of the economy and green skills development in Canada

The status and growth potential of Canada’s green economy and green jobs has been shaped by regional differences, challenges of intergovernmental relations, and a patchwork of policies,  all of which have affected college capacity to respond as needed, where needed, to skills training.

First, there is no single, federal government agency tasked with either the leadership of, or accountability for, the greening of the economy. There are currently no national strategies for green jobs or green skills, although these may exist at the provincial level. For much of the last decade, leadership on climate change and mitigation has been assumed by the provinces, (e.g. British Columbia’s carbon tax 2008; cap and trade in Quebec 2007),  while at the tertiary level municipalities are making integrated sustainability planning a priority (Federation of Canadian Municipalities 2011).

Data collection and metrics related to the scope, scale and growth of the green economy, as well as Green House Gas Emissions (GHG), rests with no single level of government. Projections of pan-Canadian human resource needs for a greening economy are largely diffused across sectoral councils. Provincial and/or federal policy initiatives have periodically stimulated job creation in areas associated with the greening economy, such as research, development and commercialization in the clean technology industries; Feed in Tariff programs, (Ontario’s Green Energy and Green Economy Act 2009,  British Columbia’s Clean Energy Act 2010); or subsidies for energy conservation and building retrofits (the federal Eco-Energy Retrofit Homes Program, and Manitoba’s Power Smart), but these efforts have not always been sustained.

Second, a coordinated, pan-Canadian training response to green skills development isn’t realistic. There are multiple training providers with accountability for technical/technology training. Regional differences are profound. Colleges, as with all education, fall within provincial/territorial jurisdiction, with significant differences in funding, operations, academic programming, and quality assurance processes.

Third, Canada’s post-secondary educational institutions are managing complex issues, which, while not unique to Canada, are transformational. These include outcomes-based learning; a changing student demographic; increased public and employer scrutiny and government accountability; issues around credentialing, credit transfer and portability of credentials; quality assurance processes, and significant pressure on revenues. In this context, sustainability and the greening of curriculum are not always an institutional priority, unless the goal is aligned successfully with some of these other, pressing concerns. Moreover, gains from sustainability initiatives are not necessarily easy to account for, especially in the short-term.

Finally, as in many jurisdictions, definitions of green skills, green jobs, the green economy and sustainability continue to be debated. The differences in understanding and value have not helped to either, raise awareness of, legitimize, or promote consistency in green skills development, or measure its usefulness and affect. There are, as yet, no common definitions of green skills or skills for sustainability, used with consistency across elementary, secondary and post-secondary institutions and the rest of government and business.

This complex and fluctuating landscape leads to challenges in the development of pan-Canadian college initiatives around clean technology including for example, development of common curriculum; inter-institutional and inter-provincial credit transfer initiatives; cross-sectoral dialogue on human resource development needs, and the mapping of non-traditional career pathways in a greening economy.

3 The status of and growth prospects for the green economy in Canada

3.1 The greening of the Canadian economy

The Canadian economy ‘varies considerably by province and region reflecting differences in natural resource endowments, geography, labour force, educational institutions and other factors’(Sustainable Prosperity 2012, 2). Assessment of the scope and growth of Canada’s greening economy is as much a challenge of definition, as it is of accessible, relevant, current, and useful metrics and data. Most definitions fail to ‘capture the full nature of what a green economy should be in the Canadian context’ (Wood 2013). Often, it has been defined narrowly, sometimes as a subset of the existing economy, usually with a focus on environmental goods and services, (ECO Canada 2010, 3), but rarely factoring in the incremental changes that contribute to greening across all industries. Definitions fail to adequately account for clean air and carbon emissions; ‘dirty’ industries transitioning to greener practices, (Alexander & McDonald 2013, 1); natural capital productivity, such as carbon storage; or the economic contribution of  ‘biodiversity protection and land and water conservation’, (Kuszewski & Crowther 2012, 5). Nor are the indirect benefits of moving towards a greener economy (better jobs, quality of life, changes in consumer habits and healthy communities) easily accounted for.

More inclusive definitions advocate a systems approach, one that acknowledges the ‘complex set of interrelations between the environment and the economy,’ (Alexander & McDonald 2013, 3), and address social well-being and social equity as well as the capacity for resource efficiency and low carbon (United Nations Economic Program 2011).

This challenge of definition has not been helpful to colleges in their efforts to identify, prioritize the development of, justify and position new and modified, greener programs.

3.2 Green jobs and the greening of jobs

In 2008, the Canadian research programme ‘Work in a Warming World’ reflected on why, ‘despite our growing concern about environmental sustainability, existing research on the complex interactions between climate change, work and employment in Canada has yet to be collated, analyzed and synthesized’(2015). Later, Winter and Moore (2013) noted: ‘There is little information on green employment in Canada. As many studies point out, green jobs do not typically fit into standard industry or occupational definitions’ (11).

Early labour market analysis of the green economy focused mostly on renewable and clean energy, environmental sector jobs and the minimizing of environmental impacts. Data on jobs in construction, business, forestry, mining, transportation, and other areas that might be considered ‘brown’, or ‘transitioning’ to green, was, and is, more difficult to quantify, and is often siloed.  Often, data collection has been sporadic with long intervals between studies. A cross-sectoral analysis of green employment is missing; more needs to be known about distinctions between entry-level, versus middle-skill jobs. More usefully, distinctions are now being made between ‘green’ careers and jobs where a percentage of work activity might be considered ‘green’, and a new class of ‘sustainability practitioners’ has been defined as those ‘who spend at least 50% of their time performing activities related to environmental, economic or social sustainability’ (ECO Canada 2013).

From a training/education perspective, there are obvious challenges. Students and parents want to know the realities of emergent, green(er) careers and prospects for job mobility and advancement. College programs need to be carefully positioned so that the skill development is anticipatory, but not so far ahead that students do not have the right skills match for the workplace. Colleges must be able to build a business case for new programs. Curriculum development is dependent on environmental scans, labour market intelligence and pattern recognition to create/modify programs, yet colleges have limited, up-dated resources available to them in assessing skills need. It could be said that the greening of college curriculum has been driven as much by a conviction that it is the right thing to do, than by an evidence-based rationale.

3.3 The role of industry and sector councils in identifying green skills

In Canada, green skills identification has been mostly sector or industry specific. There has not been the kind of cross-sectoral collaboration that has occurred in jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom, across the European Union and in Australia, that has resulted in definitions of broad-based skills for a low carbon economy, collaborative green skills development strategies, systematic approaches to skills modification and career mapping.

Canadian sectors have each developed distinct approaches to the identification of green skills and/or National Occupational Standards/NOS. NOS are the ‘competencies required to perform successfully in a particular occupation’ including ‘core knowledge, transferable competencies and technical skills’ (ECO Canada 2015).  Significantly, the NOS reflect a maturity of job performance, (i.e. five years of work experience), not necessarily the skill sets required of the entry-level, college graduate. In addition, the NOS are usually renewed on a five year cycle; a development process that is not able to respond easily to rapid change in skill sets, or incremental changes and skills modification. 

Three sector approaches are briefly examined here in order to illustrate the variants of approach. They represent areas in which colleges are considered primary providers for entry-level training, and cover three diverse areas: environment, electricity and construction. In each case, there is a somewhat different relationship between the sector and the training providers and they illustrate some of the challenges in developing a uniform approach to curriculum greening.

Environment

The sector council for environmental careers, ECO Canada, based its National Occupational Standards on established environmental skills, both specialized technical and soft skills that can also transfer usefully to other occupational areas in a greening economy. In common with other jurisdictions, the sector’s influential 2010 labour market research study, Defining the Green Economy, concluded that a green economy impacts the labour force not so much through the creation of new jobs, but mainly through the adaptation or reallocation of jobs (ECO Canada 2010, 19). Existing workers have ‘to learn new skills and/or broaden their pre-existing skill sets’ (ibid, 19). As well, jobs where a component part of the activity might be considered ‘green’ applies to a much broader section of the workforce. Both require a rigorous approach to the review and modification of college curriculum and are potentially more challenging to negotiate, than developing new programs for specialized green jobs.

As the first generation of green skills were identified under the environmental banner, there has been a tendency to classify them as contributing primarily to the production of environmental goods and services. It has taken several years for a more inclusive, cross-sectoral approach to emerge. In a subsequent 2012 ECO Canada study, The Green Jobs Map, researchers analyzed current green job descriptions, reflecting labour market needs captured ‘as found’ in job listings. The study noted that ‘the growing influence of the green economy…corresponded with greater integration of environmental information into strategic decision-making and business planning’ (ECO Canada 2012, 4). Skills developed through environmental work in ‘regulatory driven contexts, such as expertise in human health and safety, environmental protection, and environmental remediation’, were now being applied more broadly across other sectors (ibid 4). ECO Canada has collaborated with colleges in order to promote the integration of these relevant skills across environmental and natural resource management programs, but more work is needed on skills transfer to other sectors.

Electricity

The Electricity Human Resources Council identified specialized, green technical skills for new/emergent occupational areas and jobs in renewable energy. A 2008 study, Powering up the future, projected specific long-term skills shortages in the solar industry, primarily in installation, as well as the greening of ‘technical areas, systems design and integration, sales, project management and engineering (2). A subsequent 2014 pan-Canadian study, released after a significant gap, and entitled Renewing Futures a National Human Resource Strategy for Renewable Energy (RF), identified seven new sub-sectors: wind, solar, bioenergy, geothermal, hydro (small and large), marine: tidal and wave; integration and storage (4), as well as a steady increase in jobs in operations. The study also warned of an impending, substantial, shortage of qualified workers, threatening the high growth potential of the industry. While urging a national Human Resource strategy and the collaboration of industry, government and educators, the importance of post-secondary education in skills training was made clear, as was the need for on-going collaboration. Of 95 training programs of relevance to renewable energy, 52 were offered at the technician/technologist level in engineering, by colleges and universities and 39 of those were college programs. These were described as ‘the core of Canada’s current capacity to add depth and breadth to the RE workforce’ and ‘the central focus for strategic actions’ (ibid 12).

Construction

In the past it was argued that while there was a critical need to ‘green’ the construction industry, especially in the area of materials selection, this change process did not necessarily require that skilled trades workers would require, or benefit from, ‘up-skilling’. The assumption was that engineering and design professionals would make most key decisions (O’Grady 2010, 169). That perspective is changing. In Closing the Gap Green Skills Training for Trades, Hazel Farley of the Canada Green Building Council defines the ‘green gap’ as ‘missing foundational knowledge that is necessary for all individuals involved in constructing today’s buildings’ (2015). Moreover, there is increased recognition of the need for ‘in-depth training’ of ‘specialty trade occupations such as plumbers, electricians, carpenters, and HVAC mechanics’, in order to ‘become familiar with new green technologies and techniques’ (ibid). An alternate, not-for-profit group,  the Construction Resource Initiatives Council, also has been working on engaging stakeholders in greening the supply chain for the construction industry,  focusing on a change strategy, as well as the skill development required to tackle a non-linear and complex field which crosses jurisdictions: ‘Landfills are municipal. The province is the regulator. And, materials are an international trade matter. The supply chain is ultimately international, with local and regional intricacies’ (Gratton in Milijasevic 2015).

These cases illustrate the challenge for colleges in responding to distinct industry and sector skills needs, different rates of change as well as regional and jurisdictional differences, through different education/training models and approaches, across multiple programs. Sometimes it is difficult for colleges to bridge the gap between the skills needs identified by sector councils and industry bodies for early-to-mid career, and expressed in National Occupational Standards, against those required for entry-level positions and college curriculum. More could be done to bridge this skills gap.

4 The capacity of Canadian colleges and institutes to meet emerging, in-demand green skills

4.1 The greening of Canada’s colleges

Historically, Canada was an early leader in the promotion of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Pan Canadian initiatives, such as the incorporation of sustainable development in primary and secondary education policy across Canada’s provinces and territories began as early as 1991 under the leadership of Learning for a Sustainable Future.

At the tertiary level, institutions also began to embrace sustainability in their operations and culture with both universities, (The Halifax Declaration 1991), and colleges, (The Pan-Canadian Protocol for Sustainability 2007), developing voluntary protocols.

With the 2005 launch of the UNESCO Decade for Sustainable Development, many colleges began the more systematic integration of sustainability across the curriculum, aligning with the global, ‘green campus’ movement as well as responding to sector needs.  The result has been an evolving matrix of inter-related initiatives, not necessarily a coordinated, college-wide movement. Every college is at a slightly different place on this sustainability continuum with growth occurring in all, or some, of these dimensions. Table 1 illustrates some of these differences and inter-dependencies. In each case, it could be said that colleges are responding to different stimuli, which have promoted and accelerated certain initiatives over others. For example, in Ontario, the 2009 Green Energy Act was the impetus for new programs in renewable energy; the UNESCO Decade for Sustainable Development influenced the teaching of more generic principles of sustainability, and the green campus movement has been supported by the co-ordinating work of Colleges and Institutes Canada, as well as that of the USA-based Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education.

Table 1:             The greening of Canada’s colleges: scope of activity (Knibb 2012)

Today, the conversations around sustainability are occurring in multiple arenas, including those of special interest groups, in a pan-Canadian context facilitated by Colleges and Institutes Canada (CICan), and in a north-south dialogue through the Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education. Increasingly, colleges are being drawn into the global conversation through project partnerships and applied research.

4.2 Curriculum greening

College green skills development has, according to Knibb, (unpublished paper, 2013), followed a number of distinct, but overlapping development phases, ones not atypical of those occurring in other jurisdictions:

First phase: circa 2005-2011

In this first phase, college-level green skills development was most often in the form of isolated, voluntary actions, sometimes in response to one-time, often short-term, stimulus funding (e.g.  Ontario’s 2009 Green Jobs Skills Strategy provided $5 million over two years); a faculty member with a good idea; an alignment with a regional economic activity or priority; a sector/industry partnership (e.g. Electricity Human Resources Canada’s Wind Turbine Maintenance curriculum), or the outcome of a college sustainability plan.

Much has been learned from this first generation of new, ‘green’ specialized programs, particularly in the area of renewable energy. Often, it was assumed a new and distinct program was needed. Some were at too basic a level, too broad-based for the job requirement, or developed for a student profile that was not the best fit for the credential. Sometimes designed without benefit of external occupational or academic standards and/or regulation, the programs often lacked consistency in program nomenclature, (e.g. programs  might be variously described as renewable, sustainable, alternate,  green, or clean energy technology), and program outcomes, length and credentials varied significantly. Some referenced international standards, such as those of the North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP), adding Canadian and/or provincial content to the skills mix. They produced generalists and specialists; and at best complemented industry certifications. Some caught the student imagination, and others struggled with recruitment. Often, there were limited numbers of skilled faculty, resourcing was an issue, and curriculum may have suffered from the ‘laundry list’ approach to skills development (Wiek, Withycombe & Redman 2011, 204). It was not unusual for not-for-profit organizations to be ahead of the colleges, through the provision of short courses and specialized training. Some sought collaborative arrangements in order to formalize that training.

Of necessity, colleges and institutes developed innovative strategies for teaching and learning, built community/industry partnerships, and integrated field experience and applied projects. As with the sector councils, colleges were feeling their way without benefit of a green skills classification, or reliable labour market intelligence. Despite these start-up challenges, students graduated, found jobs and sometimes went on to further education.

New, blended programs also began to be developed, such as green business, green or sustainable building, and sustainable agriculture. While developed from an established discipline, they set themselves apart with a distinct learning culture and values; links with community, project-based learning and often, they attracted a very different student profile, including university graduates.

Colleges also began to present a ‘greener’ public profile. Existing programs in environmental science and natural resource management became part of the ‘green’ inventory and a tool in student recruitment. Most important, consideration was given to the greening of all academic programs, not necessarily new ‘green’ programs.

Second phase: 2011 to present

The second generation of specialist, green technical/technology programs have benefitted from a more systematic approach to design. Curriculum developers can reference a growing body of knowledge and new, Canadian, industry-driven occupational standards, particularly in renewable energy. (A major stimulous to standards development was the passing of green or clean energy acts in some provinces.) Programs may be positioned differently, and build directly on skills sets and credentials, sharing common foundation curriculum such as electrical, mechanical or power engineering. Job prospects for graduates are greater, as is academic and work place mobility.

The most significant developments are modifications within established programs, sometimes through program-level learning outcomes, but operationalized at the course-level by infusing concepts of sustainability such as social justice, diversity and indigenous culture across the curriculum. These are changes that reach and influence all students, on an assumption that practices in all occupational areas will need to change in order to promote workplace sustainability. These changes have not been easy to design, implement or evaluate. A primary focus is how best to engage faculty and students in what is sometimes perceived as values-based curriculum, and the most effective strategies for teaching, learning and assessment.

Third phase: 2012 to present

Historically, colleges did not have access to research funding and applied research activity was limited, but it could be argued that this is a key characteristic of the emergent third phase of college greening.  The impetus for this development phase is access to new sources of funding, and it parallels and expands upon developments in phase II. An environmental scan of pan-Canadian college activity, (2012-13), identified 654 areas of research specialization and 489 specialized research centres and labs, engaging nearly 30,000 students. Small and medium sized enterprises accounted for 78% of the business/industry partnerships with a growing number of social innovation projects. Environmental science and technologies, natural resources, and energy and clean tech sectors were strongly represented, with projects in areas such as mine remediation, clean water, and organic food production. (ACCC 2014).

Since 2002, colleges have also accessed Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, (NSERC) funding through a federal program supporting public-private partnerships. Aiming to increase innovation at the community and/or regional level, it enables Canadian colleges to work with small-to-medium sized businesses (SMEs) on applied research, commercialization, technology transfer, adaptation and adoption of new technologies (ACCC 2013). Subsequently, numerous clean technology projects have developed under the program in areas such as land reclamation, agriculture and green roof technology.

The potential impact of this work is profound. Research-driven curriculum may ultimately leverage the most significant and lasting of any changes in the greening of college programs.

5 Strategies for the greening of curriculum and approaches to systematic design

A challenge in the process of greening program curriculum is finding clarity and consistency of expression in articulating new types of vocational learning outcomes, as well as building efficiencies in the design process. Knibb (2012, 2013) identifies at least three primary strategies, of increasing complexity: 

5.1 Additive strategies for curriculum greening

The most simple and direct approach to curriculum greening has been modification through an additive approach. Strategies include:

• Mandatory or voluntary college-wide, sustainability Vocational Learning Outcome(s) (VLOs) that can be aligned to any program. For example, Nova Scotia Community College has five Sustainability Learning Outcomes. They include students’ ability to: develop skills necessary to implement sustainable solutions; the capacity to make connections between their chosen program of study/career path and sustainability; to view themselves as part of inter-connected world systems; to synthesize understanding of social, economic, and environmental systems and discuss practical solutions to sustainability issues and understand how sustainable thinking and decision-making contributes to the process of solution-building for social, environmental, and economic crises (NSCC 2015).
• New, program specific, or course-level VLO(s) sometimes developed in collaboration with industry stakeholders;
• Mandatory, or voluntary college-wide, or program-specific general education courses or electives with a focus on education for sustainability (e.g. Introduction to Sustainable Development, Environmental Sustainability, Global Warming Concepts);
• Learning for sustainability with action-oriented,  trans-disciplinary courses such as Yukon College’s Decision Making for Climate Change, that provides an overview of climate change science and policy, and the tools for integrating climate change considerations into policy and planning;
• Establishing targets, (e.g. specific numbers of new courses with a sustainability focus);
• Vocationally-oriented, ‘bolt-on’ course(s) as a means of quickly up-dating a program (e.g. Canada’s Green Building Council offers a number of  courses in LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) in partnership with Canadian colleges);
• ‘Top-up’ of existing programs with certificates or modules, (‘up-skilling’), such as the Green Professionals Building Skills Training; five upgrade modules for the skilled trades, based on a 2010 American program of the same name.

5.2 Systematic approaches to integrating sustainability across the curriculum

More challenging from a design perspective, is the infusion of green/sustainability skills in ways that alter program structure, or more profoundly, the culture of a program. These more systematic changes could include:

• Infusing sustainability concepts and themes across the college culture (e.g. Centennial College’s Signature Learning Experience: Global Citizenship & Equity, the outcomes of which can be attained through a student portfolio; or Yukon College’s ‘core competency’ in knowledge of Yukon First Nations, which is now required of all students);
• Review of all program/course level Vocational Learning Outcomes and modification, as and where, required as part of a cyclical program of program review and quality assurance;
• Developing new ‘green’ specializations around an established academic foundation in order to facilitate career mobility  through ‘stackable credentials’ (e.g. Wind Turbine Technician/Industrial Electrician Coop Diploma Apprenticeship, St Lawrence College, Ontario);
• A focus on ‘skills for sustainability’ as essential employability skills, embedded in all programs;
• Development of  a bank  of green, technical, cross-sectoral, vocational learning outcomes that can be adapted to any program at various levels (e.g. waste reduction, energy conservation and  green procurement);
• Changing strategies for teaching, learning and assessment.

In all cases, a significant challenge has been the extent to which these strategies are, or can be, evaluated effectively as curriculum models, in relation to the needs of the workplace and economy, and with regard to the short and long-term impacts on student mobility and success.

5.3 A green skills typology

Developed by Knibb, (2012, 2013), as a response to the challenges of integrating different skill types and modifying others, this typology (see Table 2) can be used in the re-framing of program curriculum. It was designed as a development tool in order to help faculty manage their thinking around greening the curriculum, gradations of change and skills progression. For example, it makes distinctions between the type and nature of technical skills and helps to illustrate where commonalities across program families might be found, thereby finding efficiencies. It amplifies and make distinct, the important ‘skills for sustainability’, but at the same time aligns them with the existing convention of required learning of generic or soft skills, to make their integration easier. All skill types can be expressed at different levels of learning.

Table 2:             Green skills typology for technical and technology-based, college programs (Knibb 2015)

There has also been a concerted effort by colleges to promote teaching, learning and assessment strategies that help students move from learning about sustainability to learning for sustainability. To do so, means for example, a shift from lecture-based delivery to problem-oriented, real-world, (often community-based), applied projects. Strategies might include team-teaching across disciplines, mentoring/coaching, use of external experts from the local community, business and government, use of ecological principles to integrate curriculum elements, place-based learning, (outside the classroom), and authentic assessment. A focus on the evaluation on the effectiveness of these methods in teaching to sustainability would be a critical contribution to furthering our understanding of best practices for applied arts and technology programs.

6 Green skills development: challenges and solutions for Canada’s colleges

The greening of the economy requires a new kind of responsiveness from training providers and other stakeholders and new approaches to skills analysis and program design. The fusion of new and existing occupational skills sets across sectors, changes in the type and nature of work, different expectations of work place performance, and the capacity to respond to environmental and social challenges require different approaches. Knibb documented some of these as an outcome of an investigation into strategies on the greening of post-secondary curriculum (unpublished paper 2013). They might include for example:

• Recognizing emergent, cross-sectoral, skill sets and opportunities for occupational ‘fusion’ (e.g. energy management and sustainable building technology);
• Facilitating multi-skilling and employee mobility through increased cross-sectoral dialogue and collaboration with sector councils, trade unions, and government;
• The timely collection and dissemination of reliable, relevant and accessible data on projected skills needs, regionally as well as nationally;
• Capacity to deliver, and ‘speed to market’ from training providers, as well as from those  agencies charged with standards development, accreditation or regulation;
• Recognition that ‘one size does not fit all’, and that regional distinctions, particularly those relating to labour shortages, skills needs and training in the North, and in First Nations and Innuit communities, must be accounted for;
• Targeting training to the right audience at the right level (e.g. many clean technology jobs are considered ‘middle-skill’ requiring more than a high-school diploma, but less than a university degree);
• Consideration of worker mobility and, increasingly, international mobility, especially in renewable energy;
• ‘Next generation partnerships’ in order to better resource quality skills training and program resources;
• Orientation of high school students to the career possibilities of a greening economy including career lattices, the value of STEM subjects, and workplace experience;
• New approaches to workforce development, and dissemination of information to better enable career counselling;
• Strategies for effective evaluation of skills training, particularly in the area of skills for sustainability, including longitudinal studies.

In moving forward, it’s clear that given the scope, scale and possible required speed of change and development, Canada’s colleges would benefit from a number of strategies that would help promote a more systematic approach to green skills development and the capacity to  respond to ‘urgencies’ in meeting skills needs. There is a need for more structures, supports and stimuli, as well as greater efforts at alignment of activity across all levels of governance and policy-making. Based on an inter-jurisdictional investigation by Knibb (unpublished paper 2013), these might include:

Jurisdictional level

• Alignment between, and a commitment to, long-term policy directives at provincial and federal levels to stimulate and support the greening of industries and green skill development;
• A ‘whole of government’, systematic and inclusive approach to policy and green skills development (e.g., the province of Manitoba’s Education for Sustainability Leadership Council will guide a ‘whole-system approach’ towards education for sustainability).
• Stable, long-term, funding to support research and innovation and technology-industry partnerships;
• Inter-jurisdictional collaboration around credentials and portability of qualifications.
• Sector level
• Current, relevant, and accessible, labour market intelligence;
• Reliable, current and proven occupational and/or academic standards to promote program-to-program consistency and quality assurance in fields that are still emergent;
• Career mapping;
• Better understanding of the merits of skills for sustainability and their value in the workplace;
• Increased cross-sectoral dialogue around critical,  broad-based technical skills;
• Rigorous evaluation of green workplace skills and their relevance.

College systems level

• A systematic, (scalable and transferable), but not necessarily prescriptive, approach to green skill development that promotes consistency across ‘like’ programs, but which can accommodate regional and institutional differences;
• New approaches to training for existing jobs transitioning to green (de-carbonizing);
• New models for program design that promote student access and mobility (i.e. multiple points of entry);
• Flexible models of academic program development, implementation and renewal that better respond to the needs of emergent occupations and/or rapid skill change including ‘up-skilling’ and retraining;
• Creative and collaborative approaches to resourcing new program design (e.g. industry partnerships, regional consortia, centres of specialization/excellence, shared curriculum, innovative financing).

Institutional level

• Development of faculty expertise – not only specialized content, but appropriate teaching, learning and assessment strategies;
• An holistic approach to curriculum development and mapping of green skills across programs;
• Continuous, and critical assessment of green/sustainability-related curriculum initiatives;
• Integration of applied research as a means of driving curriculum greening;
• Long-term commitments to the sustainability agenda. 

7 Summary and Conclusion

Despite limited labour market intelligence in many sectors, colleges are moving forward with ambitious sustainability initiatives. The analysis of current practices suggests that there are commonalities of approach, within a culture that also supports and celebrates institutional distinctions and regional differences. Their collective strengths include:

• Developing distinct cultures of sustainability that respond to regional, student, and community needs and institutional strengths;
• Green campus initiatives and modelling of sustainability practices across all campus operations (campus as learning laboratory);
• ‘Second generation’ programs of study in renewable energy and clean technology, and the design of ‘next generation’ cross-sectoral programs that offer new skill combinations;
• Partnerships with local, small-to-medium businesses and stimulous to the local economy;
• Centres of specialization, applied research and technology transfer;
• Working with First Nations youth to build better, more sustainable communities, and promoting understanding of First Nations’ culture across the student population;
• More systematic approaches to the infusion of green skills; the greening and modification of existing skills and skills for sustainability across all college curricula, reaching all students.

Canadian colleges have the responsiveness, flexibility, adaptability and the will to be at the forefront of green skills training. What is also needed is an enriched infrastructure and long- term funding commitments that will help build and accelerate that capacity for change.

Acknowledgement

This paper is based on an earlier draft, developed for the  inception workshop, (May 2015), of the APEC sponsored project: The Systematic Design of Green Skills in TVET, led by the Department of International Cooperation & Comparative Education Research, Central Institute for Vocational & Technical Education, P. R. China.

Special thanks to staff at Colleges and Institutes Canada, (CICan), who helped make this work possible.

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Citation

Knibb, H. & Paci, C. (2016). The Greening of Canada’s College Curriculum. A Pan-Canadian Survey. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-21. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/knibb_paci_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.12.2016).