Socioeconomic megatrends such as digitization, internationalization and demographic change are having an increasing impact on shaping the world of work and are effecting a profound transformation of work-processes and work organizations in companies. Skilled workers must be able to react appropriately to these changes, which requires a corresponding competence development. The introduction of new concepts of work and organizational concepts as well as the objective of acquiring reflexive action competence are accompanied by a change of perspective: learning in the work-process is undergoing a renaissance, as the learning content of work-processes is again being very strongly acknowledged nowadays.

In this context, continuing vocational education and training are required to respond with appropriate TVET programmes and structures. Consequently, companies are faced more than ever with the challenge of shaping work-process-related learning in such a way that it is not merely situational and random, but fosters the aimed development of competences. A few concepts for in-company training have already been established but have so far not been sufficiently investigated in relation to the importance of this issue. Although the approaches differentiate between the relationship of the place of learning and the workplace, an elaborated theoretical foundation of the criteria that support learning is still a research desideratum.

Therefore, the main question is how work-process-related learning can be shaped and organized in company work-processes from a didactic-methodological perspective and in reference to learning theories. Based on the concept of work-process-related learning that has been developed, this article discusses criteria for competence-promoting work designs and applies these exemplarily to empirically determined fundamental fields of action. Previous studies and experiences from the corporate working environment have been evaluated and summarized in order to define these fundamental fields of action, leading to specific recommendations for work-process-related learning.

Keywords: Work-based learning, work-process, competence, work-process knowledge, learning

1        Introduction – The importance of connecting learning and working

Since the origin of the humanistic educational ideal, respectively since the institutional separation of academic and vocational education, the opportunities the workplace can offer as a place of learning are not immediately obvious to many learners. This discussion is not only academically driven (Georg 1996, 637 f.), but also, at first glance, not always purposeful in the sense of the vocational pedagogical understanding of learning in the work-process in the context of training and further education in companies. When asked about learning locations in the context of their training, for example, apprentices would invariably answer: “Learning takes place at (vocational) school, work takes place in the company.” Learning processes in and through work are usually not recognized as such, which is particularly due to a one-sided and culturally influenced understanding of learning (Rausch 2011, 320). Learning is often equated with formally acquired and thus obviously examination-relevant knowledge, not with learning processes in work situations at companies. Similar arguments are also used in further education and training: the highest learning effect is attributed to the seminar-based learning venue. In addition, however, the exchange of experience and expert knowledge in informal contexts (e.g. in “coffee breaks” or during a joint dinner after the formal, school-based learning unit) plays an important role (Spöttl & Schulte 2012).

Therefore, learning in and within work-processes has become increasingly important in recent years since global megatrends such as demographic change, internationalization and the digital transformation are gradually changing the environment in which we live and work. The permeation of the working reality with new technologies and trends is leading to increasing flexibility and fundamental changes in work-processes. Digital networking is catalyzing the development of new business models, also by changing and optimizing process flows and work organizations. In short, a general and cross-industry change in work and organizational concepts is taking place. As a result, skilled workers must be able to cope with the new requirements for action and respond appropriately to the ongoing changes. As a consequence of this dissolution of boundaries and plurality of work tasks, there is a need for an overarching vocational education objective, namely the development and shaping of action competence (Schröder 2004, 37; Dehnbostel 2007, 11; Spöttl et al. 2021). Professionals should be increasingly able to cope with the outlined social and professional changes and to participate actively in shaping them (Schröder 2008, 44; Pahl 2016).

In contrast, however, qualification programmes do not sufficiently take into account the development of self-organized learning. Learning in school-organized teacher-student arrangements at institutionalized venues requires the focussed development of reflexive action competence. This reflexive action competence describes the ability to reflect on the structures and organizational forms of work as well as on one’s own actions in the work-process in the phases of preparation, performance and evaluation. The focus here is on “the conscious, critical and responsible assessment and evaluation of actions on the basis of one’s own experience and available knowledge” (Dehnbostel 2007, 42) and thus encompasses an interaction between professional action competence, the organizational framework conditions of work and individual dispositions (ibid., 42).

Vocational education and training and further in-company training therefore need to respond with sustainable concepts. There is a need for a firm interlinkage of learning in real work situations and theory-based knowledge transfer as well as modern forms of learning for work-process-oriented (in-company) learning. In this context, an important role for competence development processes is played by experience-based learning, i.e. learning in the work process that is not goal-oriented and planned, but incidental (Dehnbostel 2015, 2; Becker et al. 2001). In the current discourse, experience-based learning and competence development processes are therefore given higher status than formal learning and continuing education processes. This is accompanied by a change in the perspective of vocational-in-company learning: The company workplace is becoming increasingly important as a learning venue – learning in the work-process enables the acquisition of action competence and reflexive ability to act (Dehnbostel 2007, 44; Spöttl et al. 2021).

In this context, however, it should be noted that although work-processes basically provide learning potential, workplaces are not per se designed to promote learning (Rausch 2011, 3; Dehnbostel 2015, 54). Many companies sometimes trust that learning takes place in the direct work-process on an experiential basis (Becker et al. 2001). In fact, experiential learning also takes place without targeted pedagogical support and reflection in a wide variety of work activities – nonetheless, the shaping of didactically prepared situations and suitable framework conditions with regard to the activities in the work-process (Severing 2003, 2) is essential for an intentional development of competences.

How can work-process-related learning in the company be didactically and methodically shaped? The following article discusses competence-promoting criteria for learning in the work-process by addressing different perspectives on learning (see chapter 2), criteria of a work design that promotes learning and competence (see chapter 3) as well looking at results so far and further needs and focus on research (see chapter 4).

2        Workplace learning and learning in the work-process

In Germany as well as in the international research community, learning in the process of work is discussed and referred to in many different ways. In the Anglo-Saxon world, different terms are used interchangeably. In general, these terms refer to self-directed, process-oriented and lifelong learning, which essentially contributes to the development of (professional) competences. This can take place both in the workplace but also in a formal educational institution (Bahl et al. 2019, 13 f.). Allan (2015, 1), in his attempt to conceptualize workplace learning, also points to the conceptual confusion resulting from a lack of a uniformly accepted definition of learning in the process of work. Accordingly, a detailed analysis and inventory of models of learning in and about work remains absent from the current research discourse (Dehnbostel 2007, 44). In order to facilitate and structure the discourse, centrally discussed (vocational pedagogical) systematization approaches for the conceptualization of learning within work-processes are presented below.

2.1     Systematization of learning and work

A possible approach to a viable typology is offered by the generic term work-based learning, which is, however, semantically broad. It is often used synonymously with terms such as workplace learning, learning on the job, work-integrated learning, and work-process-oriented learning (Dehnbostel 2015, 31; Dehnbostel & Schröder 2017, 5). In this context, work-integrated learning is first of all understood as all learning processes in companies, outside companies, and schools that relate to work and work-processes. “Learning takes place in work, at work, and about work, encompassing a broad spectrum of orientations and understandings” (Dehnbostel 2015, 32).

Due to a lack of a generally accepted definition of workplace learning opportunities, a variety of forms for shaping and combining learning and working in the workplace context are described in the literature (Dehnbostel 2018; Becker & Spöttl 2001; Becker et al. 2001). Already in the 1990s, Dehnbostel differentiated for the integration of working and learning between work-related, work-oriented and work-integrated forms of learning. Learning in the work-process increasingly prevails for all forms of learning, in which a separation between working and learning is removed and the process reference is emphasized. Dehnbostel differentiated (Dehnbostel 1998, 182) the organization of operational forms of learning into

• work-based learning (learning location and workplace are identical, e.g. learning islands and company learning stations),
• work-connected learning (spatial and work-organizational connection between place of learning and workplace, e.g. technical centres and model training places) and
• work-oriented learning (learning location and workplace are spatially and organizationally separated, e.g. business and production-oriented learning in educational institutions) (Becker & Windelband 2021, 31; Dehnbostel & Schröder 2017).

Thus, while learning was adjacent to work, e.g. in learning islands in production, in which a clear dividing line between working and learning could be discerned (even if “work orientation” was already a guiding principle here), the value of informal forms of learning in work was gradually recognized. Baitsch & Frei (1980) also began to state the relevance of work-immanent qualification in the early 1980s already and to systematically include incidental learning as a relevant form of learning in distinction to intentional learning. Livingston (1999) then differentiated intentional learning forms from informal learning forms. Livingstone characterized informal learning as the “independent acquisition of significant new knowledge or skills that endure long enough to be recognized as such in retrospect” (ibid., 69) and thus distinguished this learning from incidental learning processes shaped solely by experience. UNESCO also subscribed to this classification. In the context of the debate on lifelong learning, the European Commission attempted to clarify the term (EU 2001, 33 f.), in which a clear distinction should be made between formal forms of learning (in an educational institution), non-formal forms of learning (outside of educational institutions) and informal forms of learning (“in everyday life”), but this proves to be unsustainable in the age of the integration of working and learning in the workplace, since workplace learning can certainly take place formally, but independently of (educational) institutions (Becker & Windelband 2021, 31 f.).

To date, the dividing lines between formal and non-formal forms of learning are fluid; as a rule, they follow organizational classification. Organizationally structured forms are assigned to the first group, non-organizationally structured forms to the second group (cf. Figure 1). The distinctions are important, for example, in terms of whether a form of learning can be assigned to continuing education or not, or whether the value of such learning can be “validated” (CEDEFOP 2009) and used in education systems (for example, for access to examinations or for assignment to qualification levels of what has been learned) (Becker & Windelband 2021, 32).

The non-formal forms of learning are usually based on theories of situated learning or are oriented towards constructivist didactic approaches (Gerstenmaier & Mandl 2001). Therefore, self-directed learning and process oriented learning are two central features for approaches which connect working and learning, especially in the context of workplace learning.

The importance of learning in the process of work is increasing in almost all areas of vocational training and continuing vocational education. In companies, self-directed and experiential learning in the process of work is increasingly promoted and combined with formal learning opportunities. Qualification times at the workplace are being increased (Qualifizierungschancengesetz 2018) and forms of learning organization integrating work and learning are being further developed. Work environments and systems are being created (Becker 2018) that facilitate the integration of learning and work.

Moreover, learning in the work-process is increasingly recorded and recognized in different educational courses of the education system, even if one cannot yet speak of standardized processes. Nevertheless, this development leads to a reduction of the distance between learning and working and thus further underpins the importance of learning in the work-process.

2.2     Work-process orientation as Innovation

In learning in the work-process, the acquisition of knowledge that cannot be objectified plays a major role, which ultimately means that experiential learning is of particular importance. This can, for example, be a kind of troubleshooting in which skilled workers learn about the function of machines and systems via cause and effect relationships, but it can also be interaction with colleagues to exchange data that goes undocumented. Through learning in the work-process, practical knowledge of action and theoretical knowledge are merged into expert knowledge on the way from experience to knowledge and from knowledge to ability, there is integration in practical action in the context of work. Ultimately, this is what is typical and characteristic for being an expert.

The goal of vocational education encompasses the development of shaping competence and demands didactic action to this end. The basis of vocational action and shaping competence therefore is work-process knowledge. U.S. labour scientists, who have been researching work-process knowledge since the 1970s, have commented on the importance of this knowledge and its exploration: if it is possible to gain access to the knowledge embodied in practical work, these findings will have an almost revolutionary impact, especially on curriculum research and curriculum development (Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986; Schön 1983; Spöttl et al. 2020).

Acquiring experience or experiential knowledge in the appropriate processing of work tasks is something that is taken for granted; it occurs quasi automatically. Action knowledge is sufficient to carry out a task. As a basic rule, the acquisition of this experience is already based on elementary theoretical prior knowledge in the form of technical knowledge. However, work-process knowledge is more, it develops on comprehending knowledge. This knowledge provides an answer (in the professional context) to the question: Why is or does a thing behave in such a way and not differently? Answering this question, provoked by the different demands placed on work and technology, presupposes the reconstruction of the (historical) development as well as the interests, purposes, and norms associated with a thing. It is about systematic reconstruction and reasoning – and not about pure experience. However, experience is at the same time the prerequisite for comprehending cognition. This, in turn, forms the basis for action-guiding knowledge and the gathering of new experiences in the process of professional action.

Work-process-related knowledge points beyond the action situation at the workplace to operational contexts and processes and, accordingly, to contextual knowledge. Experience and work-process knowledge are promoted above all when learners are confronted with new situations, with errors and their corrections, with decision-making processes as well as with innovations at the focal points of operational organizational development. Work-process knowledge that only aims at the reproduction of existing knowledge is not very innovative and at best enables the reproduction of existing facts. Only work-process knowledge, which includes the experience that arises from operational innovations and from overcoming problems, establishes professional shaping competence.

Work-process knowledge is the pivotal point for logically shaped vocational education and the respective curricula. All knowledge incorporated in this approach excels with much higher stability than “technological knowledge” which can be assigned to the surface of the technological development. In his essay “From work experience to work-process knowledge”, Fischer has comprehensively and systematically developed the term work-process knowledge as a scientific and vocational education category and has thus considerably contributed to an identification of logical structures of development in vocational education (Fischer 2000). The term “work-process knowledge” describes the knowledge of skilled workers which is, to a great extent, acquired by individual work experience (see Figure 2). In this complex, the following characteristics have been specified with respect to the range of the term “experience”:

• Work-process knowledge combines theoretical knowledge and practical experience in a systematic rather than in an accidental way.
• Work-process knowledge is oriented towards the entire work and business processes of a company and is not just confined to work experience at the workplace.
• Work-process knowledge is accumulated in situations calling for tasks such as targeting, planning, execution and assessment of one’s own work.
• Work and business process knowledge unfolds in problem situations, above all at crystallization points of corporate decision making, e.g. with the introduction of new technology or with the decisive change of existing work-processes within the framework of operational innovation processes (Spöttl et al. 2020).

The concept of work-process knowledge in this form goes beyond the concept of step by step development towards an expert as described by Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986).It underlines the interaction between experience and systematic knowledge more forcefully. Furthermore, work-process knowledge is not confined to the organizational dimension of operational processes and the respective overall knowledge; it also encompasses the practical, implicit, and theoretical knowledge incorporated in concrete vocational work. Work-process knowledge can therefore be characterized as a holistic concept of knowledge because practical, rational, aesthetical, and social moments form a unity within work experience.

The work-process oriented concept of the development of competence is highly suitable for curriculum development as it supports the formulation of contents from the perspective of work-process categories (Kleiner 2004). The model does not start from the prevailing differentiation of formalized knowledge, but aims at a qualitative reorganization of thinking “from standard-guided ‘know-that’ to experience based ‘know-how’” (Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986, 41). Competences and expert knowledge should be developed which are both organized in a way which is qualitatively different from explicit standard knowledge. The most important links are the real challenges of work, technology, and society. This aspect demonstrates the difference of this concept compared to models which rely on a defined “spectrum” of entry competences and then try to develop “final competences” – defined as “reflected masterful” – with the aid of differently shaped teaching and learning processes. These models operate within a defined framework and imply that the determined entry and final competences are both “correctly” assessed and that the applied teaching-learning processes initiate data processing procedures which produce the expected “knowledge” and develop the defined competences (Spöttl et al. 2020). However, what is often ignored is the fact that the entire learning process is confined to a given framework which can firstly only be tied in with the known subject structures (due to definitions) and, secondly, completely ignores the complexity of the “real world” of skilled workers and engineers.

The advantage of approaches as described above may be summarized as follows:

• Work-process based learning is focused on competence development.
• Coping with work requirements is used as a driver and it is embedded into the social procedure of a re-shaping of work organization and the further development of a company.
• Learning during the work-process is amended by various functions and thus clearly goes beyond the production of new knowledge and skills.
• Work-process orientation supports cognitive flexibility as well as networked thinking. The acquisition of competences takes place in realistic context situations and with strong participation of the student. Self-guided and self-organized learning will thus play a major role.
• Learning and working can be easier integrated by work-process orientation.
• Work-process-based learning helps to close the gap between employees who are often attending further training courses and those who do not or only rarely have this opportunity. More or less all employees of a company can be involved in these development processes.

2.3     Character of work-process-based learning

The previous explanations on learning and working indicate that the forms and contents of learning in companies are obviously changing. Work-process related learning is becoming a main issue to tackle for the companies. This is flanked by informal forms of learning, self-directed learning with digital media, product training and others. It is therefore appropriate to characterize the development of work-based learning.

As Raelin puts it, it has become a veritable necessity in work-based learning, that learners adopt the capacity to deal with change and with the future (Raelin 2008, 71). However, the competence development of the learner cannot be limited to professional competence, meaning the willingness and ability to solve tasks and problems in a goal-oriented, appropriate and autonomous manner which (partly) could be practiced and simulated in TVET schools. Nonetheless, it needs to be taken into consideration that real work-processes require skills and competences in terms of working with other people to achieve a shared goal as well as reflect on the consequences of their own actions and behaviours throughout a real working process. This is not something which can be artificially created. “It becomes obvious that technical know-how is not sufficient on its own. Instead, both learning venues are set up to help trainees develop vocational action competence. In order to achieve this goal, different stakeholders are involved in shaping the key elements of the dual VET system, including the continuing development of system standards and implementation, assessment and certification and the two responsible learning venues” (Pinnow 2019, 4) – thereby strongly emphasizing the aspect of practical application.

Work-based learning is one crucial aspect for an individual’s continuous development to maintain his or her employability due to the changes in the world of work as outlined above. At the same time, companies are reorganizing their workplaces and production structures in order to use the manifold opportunities offered by work-based learning. In those terms, work-process based learning (WPBL) becomes increasingly important since it places emphasis on the workplace as offering multiple opportunities for learning and stresses that reflection in particular “constitutes the ability to uncover and make explicit to oneself what one has planned, observed, or achieved in practice. It is concerned with the reconstruction of meaning” and therefore “is fundamental to all work-based learning practices” (Raelin 2008, 74).

Shaping structures in the workplace also plays an important role as it has a major influence on the transfer and management of knowledge. In other words, when the learning content of work-processes is taken into account, WPBL can “serve as an engine for transforming an organization to be receptive to learning” (ibid., 33). If the overview of the knowledge inherent in an organization is available, it is possible to think about ways of dissemination for this knowledge base to colleagues. Finally, the transferred knowledge has to be “assimilated” to be available for further action and for applying your (new) knowledge to new (work) situations. Knowledge management represents in this situation a more abstract level regarding questions of how to conduct a working place (at the company) in way that supports learning. At the same time, it also touches on the question of specific criteria which are supportive for learning.

3        Criteria for conducting work-processes-based learning

In the following, criteria for competence-promoting work design are discussed in more detail. From the TVET perspective, there are initially two central strands to the discussion:

• On the one hand, there is the question of how to shape framework conditions that promote learning and competence development. The focus here is on the learning theory approach.
• On the other hand, specific criteria for the shaping of work-processes have to be considered.

The first perspective is oriented towards the goal of promoting professional competence as a holistic concept in terms of competence orientation, while the second perspective emphasizes the claim of vocational pedagogy, which in the sense of “modern” professionalism aims at the development of comprehensive professional competence, both in dual training and in university studies (IG Metall Executive Board 2014). It refers to the co-design of work, work organization and technology and thus the task assignments.

3.1     Levels and characteristics of arranging learning in the context of work

In the context of acknowledging workplaces as learning venues, additionally to the subjective characteristics that are inherited with the working persons themselves, objective factors that refer to the work-process or place of work itself are increasingly being considered. This always raises the question of the learning-infrastructural enrichment of the workplace and the work activity, i.e. the operational framework conditions (Salman 2008, 88).

These are concretized at the macro level (i.e., the level at which a company is viewed as an overall system) in the corporate culture and working conditions. Work-process-oriented learning in the company thus takes place within company contexts of action (at various levels) and is thus also determined by work-cultural and organizational-structural conditional factors (ibid.). Therefore, a corporate culture is required in which the continuous (further) development of individual competences and the establishment of knowledge management structures is an essential feature of the corporate philosophy. According to results of the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, leadership behaviour is directed towards balanced, challenging work and learning promotion (Richter, Ribbat, & Mühlenbrock 2020, 18). In this context, Frieling and Reuther (1993 cited in Salman 2008, 89) refer to concrete mechanisms that can support a corporate culture conducive to learning and competence:

• Creating opportunities for internal networking, cooperation and self-regulation in groups,
• Process orientation and strong participation of employees in the shaping of work processes and distribution of tasks
• Flat hierarchies, democratic and participative management style
• Support for new ideas and reward for commitment
• Tolerance of mistakes in risky projects
• Integration of personnel and organizational development
• Functioning information communication systems (excerpt, Salman 2008, 89).

At the meso level (e.g. the department or work group, within a community of practice), it is primarily a matter of fundamental characteristics for the shaping of work conducive to learning and competence, or more precisely, concrete task characteristics and work requirements. Against the background of learning theory, Salman (2008, 91) refers to the relevance of action regulation theory, or Hacker’s concept of complete action (Hacker 1973). A complete action consists of informing, planning, deciding, executing, controlling and evaluating. Since feedback on the achievement of goals is integrated, the complete action not only enables a continuous flow of information, but also a development of competences. In the light of the assumption that learning processes take place between anticipation and reflection, learn and work assignments constructed according to this model promote the ability to complete (company) work assignments and challenges independently, self-critically, and responsibly (BIBB n.d. (a); Spöttl et al. 2021).

Dehnbostel (2007, 67) emphasizes seven dimensions in the context of a learning and competence-promoting work design, which are of importance for the shaping of corresponding learning framework conditions, taking into account the overarching objective of acquiring reflexive action competence:

• As a consequence, he affirms the relevance of the concept of complete action and refers to the fact that employees should be confronted with requirements […] that call for the application of as many work actions as possible required in the sense of a “complete action” (ibid.).
• Furthermore, reference is made to the objective degrees of freedom and decision-making in the execution of the respective work task. In this context, Dehnbostel speaks of the necessity of a certain scope for action, which in turn is significantly dependent on the respective corporate culture. This requires the participation of those acting in the respective planning processes (ibid., 69).
• The experiences of problems and complexity are clearly related to the respective scope of action. Consequently, as the scope and complexity of a work task grows, so does the potential for agents to gain problem and complexity experiences. This requires, among other things, work situations that are characterized by indeterminacy, the interconnectivity of the variety of tasks, and the pursuit of multiple goals (ibid., 68).
• Another dimension that promotes learning and competence is social support or colleagueship. Dehnbostel elaborates that colleagueship and communication play a central role in stimulating and assisting employees to interact with one another. In this course, cooperative learning formats can generate a high degree of collectivity, communication, stimulation and formal as well as informal (group) learning processes. It “transforms learning from an individual to a … process, with collective learning processes constituted by individual learning processes and a feedback effect” (ibid.).
• With regard to the individual development of the agents, it is of particular importance that the task is aligned with their stage of development. In detail, this means that it enables the employees to develop individual ways of working. In concrete terms, this involves ensuring maximum self-control of the action without over or sub-challenging the actors (ibid.).
• Furthermore, in addition to individual development, the development of professionalism in work is an essential criterion that promotes learning and competence. This is understood to mean the successive improvement of the individual’s professional ability to act through the development of successful action strategies. Through feedback processes and experience, the professional ability to act can be strengthened step by step (ibid.).
• Following on from this, structural reflexivity as well as self-reflexivity represents another key structural characteristic called Reflexivity: “Reflexivity at work means reflecting on work structures and environments as well as on oneself” (ibid.). This essentially means the conscious and critical evaluation of actions based on one’s own experience and knowledge.

Thus a competence-promoting work-process requires the possibility of processing in the sense of a complete action, scope for active reflection processes and opportunities for social learning or the exhaustion of social support systems in the work as a framework condition. These described dimensions shift the learner’s self-control into the focus of competence development. However, they are not to be interpreted as unquestionable quality criteria of a learning theory perspective on the shaping of work-processes but are to a large extent linked to the structural conditions in the company. On the other hand, their effect also depends on the individual’s level of development (ibid., 69).

Furthermore, aspects of heterogeneity and a new role for trainers can be derived as central determinants of a work design that promotes competence and learning (Hoepfner & Koch n.d.). Heterogeneity and diversity are to be understood as an opportunity for vocational education and training and for securing a sustainably skilled workforce.

From a general perspective, this is reflected and recognizable by initiatives e.g. by UNESCO. The issues of diversity and cultural variety are discussed worldwide as a challenge for educational and cultural policy. Symposia, international networks and the support and advice for specific activities for cultural education by UNESCO outline a broadened view on the demands of education (UNESCO 2021). Learners are therefore to be taken into account with their different prior knowledge, different learning and receptive abilities or motivational and interest situations. In this context, individualization as a regulative idea also plays a key role in in-company training work. Consequently, there is a need for a holistic view of learners and (further) educational processes that are explicitly linked to the development of the personality and participation in society and working life (Lippegaus-Grünau 2014, 3). From a more specific company perspective, diversity management as a concept is aiming to cope with personal diversity within the company as a part of human resource management. In this context, individual differences of the employees are emphasised in the sense of positive appreciation. The overarching objective is,

• developing and supporting a productive overall atmosphere and culture in the company;
• prevent discrimination against minorities;
• improve or rather enable equality of opportunities (BIBB 2014, 15).

These change goes hand in hand with a broader role for TVET teachers and in-company trainers. Accordingly, training staff must be specifically prepared and qualified for the new requirements. There is a need for strategies of diversity management in order to handle challenges with respect to heterogeneity and diversity in in-company vocational training. Companies have to be aware of aspects of heterogeneity and be specifically supported and accompanied in the process of recruiting and training of young people (ibid.).

Additionally, the digital transformation of work and the accompanying changes in production conditions also demand a new understanding of the role of training personnel. They are no longer in the traditional role of purely imparting knowledge, but are increasingly assuming an organizing, initiating and advising position. They should enable active and self-directed acquisition of competences on the basis of action and process-oriented didactics and methodology (BIBB n.d. (b), 3; Spoettl et al. 2021). Communication between trainer and learner at the same level and an associated appreciative basic attitude are regarded as essential elements here.

3.2     Learn and work assignments and criteria conducive to action orientation

As for the question of explicit options for the shaping of work-process-related learning, the outlined levels and criteria conducive to learning focus on three approaches which seem particularly suitable for taking the requirements described into account and for joining them in an introductory thought for didactic design. These are, on the one hand, the concept of a learn and work assignment (emphasizing here the learning claim and the conscious shaping by teaching staff without going into the comprehensive discussions of learn and work tasks at this point (Schröder 2004), the differentiation of work-process knowledge in reference to competence levels as well as in didactic design features referring here to the process level of an activity-based and self-reliant approach (Hoepfner & Koch n.d.).

Figure 3 depicts that, in terms of the organization of the learning process, different degrees of freedom in the task (“types of LWA”) go hand in hand with different requirements for the subject contents and the competence levels to be addressed (level of work-process knowledge). Finally, there are four central elements on the didactic level of shaping the process for the teaching staff.

3.2.1  The concept of learn and work assignments

In the approach of learn and work assignments, the focus is on typical tasks of real work-processes. Based on the content and requirements, learn and work assignments support the process of competence development, especially through the objectives and demands of supporting activity-based and self-reliant learning. Furthermore, in the context of enhancing cooperation between learning places, learn and work assignments are an elementary instrument. “Learning in the work process” with the shaping of learn and work assignments, goes one step further. Here, the company workplace is accessed as a place of learning under the company’s working conditions. The vocational scientific research approach (Becker & Spöttl 2015) lays a foundation in this regard. It pursues the goal of “identifying the tasks characteristic of an occupation and the qualification requirements incorporated in them and investigating the didactic significance of these tasks for competence development” (Becker & Spöttl 2015, 27). The complexity and holistic nature of operational work tasks and processes are captured with a view to “the objects of work, methods, tools, forms of organization and requirements for skilled workers from within (the company) and from outside (requirements of society, the state, etc.) in terms of their significance for the subject (ibid., 105).

3.2.2  Work-process knowledge in relevance of competence levels

The level of work-process knowledge and its significance in relation to experiential knowledge and the development of vocational action competence are presented here in relation to different levels, as these describe different types of learning or requirements with reference to the work-process (Becker & Spöttl 2008; Neuweg 2001).

The first level is characterized by contents concerning an orientation and overview knowledge. A beginner (trainee) learns what constitutes the principle contents of the work-process. Learning has a direct contextual reference and is characterized by generally valid and thus action-guiding “rules” that can be applied in the work-process. The complexity of the work reality is thus generally reduced, but at the same time the basis for further learning steps is created.

The next level involves what is known as “contextual knowledge“. This describes facts, action routines, recurring patterns or specifications in the form of guidelines. The contents of these levels are characterized by experiential knowledge, combined with concrete application situations that are more comprehensive in their complexity than at the first level and which already show connections to upstream or downstream steps of one’s own action in relation to the holistic work-process.

At the third level, the learner already thinks and acts in complex problem solutions for the current work situation. The learner is able to carry out the problem solution based on theory and at the same time takes into account the extensively acquired experiential knowledge. This action is comparable to an algorithm, where goals and procedures are developed and also weighted or evaluated differently (as a key developmental characteristic compared to the previous stage).

At the fourth level, the learning person can already be considered an expert in his or her own field of work. The learner’s own technical work can be explained systematically. Likewise, extensive as well as novel work situations are to be mastered by the person through corresponding problem-solving processes and transfer activities. At this level, the procedure often appears rather intuitive, as the experiential knowledge no longer needs to be explained. Due to the number of work and learning situations already experienced in the three previous levels, a development of competence can be recognized on the basis of which the person is able to select his or her procedure almost immediately and, as a rule, auspiciously.

3.2.3  Action-oriented shaping criteria on the process level

Within the so-called process level of (action-oriented) learning, the following suggestions and ideas are relevant to the discussion about shaping criteria (Riedl 2011):

An internal differentiation must be taken into account for trainees and skilled workers in heterogeneous levels of prior knowledge, skills, motivation and interests. In order to meet the requirements of the work-process as adequately as possible for all employees, options of differentiation are necessary (comparable to the didactic challenge, e.g. in vocational school lessons). By shaping and planning work-processes and the organization of work, skilled workers can be positioned in relation to the respective level of competence development. In this context, working time, learning time and pace can also vary. The differentiation of the levels of work-process knowledge (cf. Figure 3) shows how this differentiation is to be technically designed.

For the completion of open tasks or problem situations, repetitive thinking is not sufficient for the learners. In order to be able to cope with the complex tasks of action-oriented teaching, learners need far-reaching degrees of freedom in the choice of work paths, work materials and work cooperation, which are reflected in the self-direction of learning and the necessary degrees of freedom. In order to enable these degrees of freedom, it is essential that the objective of the work-process can be reached in different ways. A major challenge in the shaping of action-oriented learning is the balance between the least possible restriction of the learners’ scope for decision-making and a certain degree of guidance. Too much restriction of the decision-making scope leads to a reduction of self-direction and can thus be an obstacle for the individual construction of new knowledge, whereas too little guidance in the learning process can lead to inefficiency and loss of motivation on the part of the learners.

A further aspect can be described as cooperative and communicative learning: Working in groups offers the option that multidimensional interpretations or solutions can be found for coping with tasks. The initiative and independent organization of work within groups (as it is also required in the context of school learning processes and can also be adapted for work-related learning, Riedl 2011) promotes important competences such as team and communication skills. Intentional group composition (without being forced to) increases intrinsic motivation and tends to form performance-homogeneous groups which lead to an equal distribution of tasks and workload within the group – which then establishes itself as a community of practice (Hupfer 2019).

Looking at activity-based or self-reliant learning (also following the promotion of action orientation in the vocational school context), the teaching staff is not responsible for the dominant transfer of knowledge, but rather plays the role of organizing, initiating and advising during the work or learning process (Spöttl et al. 2021). The teacher takes a back seat, providing specific and helpful impulses and supports the learning process.

4        Conclusion

4.1     Didactic concretization of a work process-based concept of competence development

The corporate and social development processes and the challenges of the requirements as outlined propose a didactical concept which helps to develop motivating learning structures in the context of corporate processes – i.e. work-processes. In order to comply with the qualification interests of companies and the subjective educational needs of employees and apprentices, it is recommended to adopt an orientation of the didactic concept to the idea of co-shaping of the world of work with a view to economic, technological and ecological criteria, as well as to issues such as health care and a shaping of work that encourages learning. The following didactic model should therefore characterize work-process-based learning:

Order orientation: “Order orientation” describes a didactic principle where the occupational learning process is oriented to Learn and Work assignments. The objective is:

• to sensitize the employees’ conscientiousness for customer oriented quality work,
• to strengthen responsibility for the occupation of all persons involved and
• to acquire knowledge and occupational competence of action in the entire context of real and authentic situations (imparting learning with good sense).

Work-process-oriented learning is highly suitable for smaller enterprises. It can be integrated into work-processes that are shaped in a way to encourage learning. Nevertheless, this may not be reduced to mere adaptation training. This would entail both administrative and economic disadvantages, as the measure does not yield competent skilled workers and would entails long-term costs for frequent refresher courses.

Acting-based learning / self-reliant learning: Provided that further training measures are not only carried out in the learning environment “company” and that learning is not organized in such a way as to encourage learning during the work-process, the overall didactic principles of action and self-reliance are validated. The identification of occupationally relevant learning requirements should be linked with work-processes and shaped to encourage the active engagement of the students. Possibilities range from (co)formulation of requirements, the (co)shaping of project objectives, autonomous and cooperative work on the project up to the evaluation of the possible different project results. Employees of companies should be involved in the reflections on the chances for learning and the progress of their qualification. The latter calls for the development of adequate examination methods that help to diagnose qualification deficits within the occupational learning process of the training institutions, companies and students.

Shaping orientation: Shaping competence in employees is increasingly in demand for occupational practice (recycling-friendly shaping!). Imparting such competences means confronting students in time with technological and corporate acting and shaping spaces – increasingly available in corporate organization development. Two didactic guiding principles support teachers and students in the creation of a shaping-oriented qualification process:

• Why are technology and work (corporate practice) what they are?
• Is there another way?

Both questions aim at the qualification for corporate innovations by taking into consideration corporate quality and shaping circles. Shaping-oriented further training therefore does not reduce a learning task to defined specifications with a correct and a wrong solution but to a relevant, open type of problem which also allows the discussion of the question of an adequate solution. This is the only way to compare approaches to reach a solution, criteria for a solution and evaluation standards, and to evaluate the project results properly. Realistic learning tasks therefore promote the shaping competence of students.

Contents for competence development measures: The contents for competence development measures can thus no longer be derived from the specialized systematics of the existing sciences. Even topic-related emphasis on the planning of training measures clearly loses importance. The work-process is at the centre of interest. Business and work-processes include the acquisition of the material, its disposition, transportation, storage, dismantling, and handling, through to marketing.

For the further development of competence elements, it is important to focus on special knowledge in an overall context. This is true for both occupational-specialized systematic basics and background knowledge and the context of a business process or a corporate organization process and their interaction with concrete work-processes.

Work-process contents, on the other hand, form the basis for the creation of LWA. Different types of LWA are key to supporting further training. A specification and at the same time a multi-dimension reflection of the requirements given by the LWAs can be done by adding further dimensions to traditional concepts for initial and further training which are just oriented to the “object of technology”.

4.2     Further research desiderata and future outlook

The discussion of different approaches to WBL presents itself as a complex and multi-perspective debate which differs mainly in the location (learning location company or educational institution) and in the proximity or distance of the approaches to the real work-process. Overall, the learning content of the work-process itself is no longer questioned and competence orientation is, depending on the international perspective, more or less clearly distinguished from activity-oriented task accomplishment (Spöttl & Tahir 2019). But all in all, following the theoretical approach-oriented presentation in this paper, there is a need to focus on and advance the concrete shaping of didactic criteria and research into the effectiveness of the didactic-methodical elements for the support of learning (in the company and school context). Two ways to do this can be outlined or taken up as suggestions:

• With regard to the approach of vocational research which focuses on an analysis of the work-process, it was considered among other things on a science-theoretical level, to what extent the didactic principles according to Klafki (Klafki 1964; Grantz et al. 2013) show intersections or can serve as a basis for further development of the methodological research approach. Comparable thought games seem to make sense for the criteria of action-oriented teaching according to Riedl (2011), insofar as these can be related (as a transfer) to the support of learning in the work-process. The aim is to generate concrete application and implementation recommendations, backed up by empirical analysis through concrete research with reference to workplace and school learning or competence development with reference to work-process.
• In this regard, the authors will take up and evaluate specific aspects in a current, internationally oriented research project on work-based learning in Thailand in existing research collaborations. For example, in cooperation with the Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL) and the King Mongkut University of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), further developments in vocational teacher training have been initiated in two projects in order to provide insights into real work-processes through practical phases and to integrate methodological examples of learning in the work-process into teacher training.

Results will be reported on this in a timely manner (in another TVET@Asia issue in 2022). The topic of WBL in connection with the vocational pedagogical objective of competence development will then be discussed further with best practice examples – and in doing so will contribute to the scientific discussion.

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TVET@Asia Issue 15: TVET research as a central factor for the development of TVET systems

TVET research is an essential factor in the development of TVET systems. Research provides information and advice on TVET policy depending on the needs, focusses and research areas. In addition, TVET research contributes to innovation and the transfer of knowledge in cooperation with TVET practitioners. TVET research always has to take the changes in work and the analysis and design of vocational education and training as well as qualification and learning processes into consideration. Thus, TVET research aims to contribute to the further development of the vocational education and training system.

Despite the relevance of TVET for social and economic development worldwide, the international TVET research community is at the beginning and still has much potential for development. International TVET research also presents itself to be an interdisciplinary approach and addresses a wide range of issues and development tasks at various levels.

The current issues stresses the importance of an international established community and discipline of TVET research. The main task of this research discipline is based on analyzing the situation of the TVET system within the country in order to come to evidence-based conclusions for development processes and reform steps. Malaysia is one example in the ASEAN-region for the impact and success of an established TVET research discipline for the enhancement of their education system (especially for TVET). The following topics can be identified as central challenges for TVET research: first, the methodological-empirical approaches of vocational training research; second, the integration of the results into the advisory services for vocational training policy and finally the establishment of corresponding research competences and structures within and outside the universities. As an interdisciplinary approach, VET research is thus active at various levels, from the macro-level (e.g. conducting and shaping the VET system), the meso level (e.g. the organization of VET courses and institutions) and the micro level (e.g. the analysis and design of education and learning processes).

The present 15^th Issue of TVET@Asia links to some of the conference’s major topics. It comprises five excellent papers addressing a range of the most relevant topics regarding various approaches to TVET research as a central condition for the development of international TVET systems. These papers offer different theoretical settings of work-based learning, concepts of trainings for specific target groups and various approaches of evaluating the current developments of enhancing the TVET system within the countries. The following authors and topics present the potentials of TVET research:

LEE MING FOONG, TEE TZE KIONG, MARINA IBRAHIM MUKHTAR, JAILANI MD YUNOS and MAIZAM ALIAS (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia) are exploring the practice of vocational pedagogies among the engineering TVET teachers in Malaysia. By using a cross-sectional survey, the paper describes different teaching strategies of engineering TVET teachers when conducting the teaching and learning session for theory, practical and drawing. Based on the findings, a framework was developed to provide basic vocation pedagogy approaches among Malaysian engineering TVET teachers.

SUREEWAN RAJCHASOM, KANYAPORN CHAIWONG and KITJANAT TANGJITNUSORN (Rajmangala University of Technology Lanna) put the focus of research on the determination of Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs) based on the Work Process learning concept in the field of bio-fuel industry. Specifically, the authors conducted a case study in which a total of 13 students were involved in work-integrated learning program under the program of Bachelor Degree in Agricultural and Biological Engineering. The PLOs were formulated in accordance to the manufacturing processes of a palm oil company. The case study has identified six PLOs that fulfill the ability and skills required in the entire work process, such as maintenance management, engineering design, and engineering problem solving.

SAMIKSHA NEROORKAR & PERUMULA GOPINATH (Tata Institute of Social Sciences) are clarifying on the concept and components of employability and the factors that can effectively enhance the employability of vocational graduates in India. The paper describes a conceptual framework to understand and analyze the employability of Indian vocational graduates. By using qualitative data collection, which includes interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires and anecdotal data logs, the framework for employability suitable for Indian VET graduates was developed. This framework consists of four components – individual factors, personal circumstances, external factors and institutional factors.  

WAN HANIM NADRAH BINTI WAN MUDA, PUTERI NUR IZAZI BINTI BURHANUDDIN, MOHD HAFIZUL HANIF BIN RAMLEE, and FAZLINDA BINTI AB HALIM (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia) are describing a study that is focusing on identifying the relationship between the level of soft skills and the employability of the graduates at the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. The paper addresses the challenge of describing employability, which consists not only by academic or occupational skills, but also includes (even more for the country and target group mentioned in the paper) soft or social skills. By applying a quantitative questionnaire, the authors are examining the relationship between soft skills and employability among the UTHM engineering graduates. The findings show and interpret different social skills and their statistical correlation to the concept of employability. Finally, the conclusion shows how the issue of reaching employability by developing soft skills by university courses explains the behavior and objectives of engineering graduates.

GOUHAR PIRZADA (STEP Skills Development Foundation, Pakistan) is evaluating the progress and effect of a TVET Sector Support Program in Pakistan, focusing on a capacity-building by establishing a training for Human Resource Managers and TVET School principals. The paper describes a research study in order to identify success factors for the training and furthermore to analyze the impact of global trends (UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals) to the learning content/concept of the training. The results lead to recommendations for the policy level to enhance the approach and the learning effects of the training. The results of the questionnaire used for the evaluation are indicating further needs for connecting the global perspectives (although they are acknowledged as very important) with regional demands for training. The interesting discussion shows how the author is recommending further steps for researching the learning effects and the level of acceptance of this training in more details.

All together, the papers are focusing on the countries of Thailand, Malaysia, India, and Pakistan so far. Thus, Issue 15 is showing some best-practices of TVET research activities that could be a starting point for further activities and for exchange of knowledge and experience through the well-established TVET@Asia community!

A very big thank you to all contributors – wishing you all great reading pleasure!

The editors of Issue 15
Sven Schulte, Niwat Moonpa, Lai Chee Sern, and Siriphorn Phalasoon

Citation

Schulte, S., Moonpa, N., Sern, L., & Phalasoon, S. (2020). Editorial Issue 15: TVET research as a central factor for the development of TVET systems. In: TVET@Asia, issue 15, 1-3. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue15/editorial_schulte_etal_tvet15.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2020).

ASEAN has gradually developed into an increasingly dynamic and competitive region economically. TVET aims to prepare learners for a labour market and society persistently undergoing rapid change. As a result, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has to develop its objectives, systems and didactical concepts further.

It is widely anticipated that the involvement of industry in TVET will lead to an improved and advanced quality of TVET programmes. This, in turn, is directly related to the modern requirements of the labour market and specific concepts of workplace orientated learning. Furthermore, new didactical approaches explore and develop the workplace as a learning venue that aims at goal-oriented competence development. The successful organization of modern learning arrangements in TVET and beyond depends on a close cooperation and coordination of the various learning environments.

The Indonesia University of Education (UPI) of Bandung, Indonesia, is one the numerous educational institutions that have been established in the realization of the importance of educating people. Specially qualified teachers were required to increase the quality of education and to help create a prosperous society. During November 15^th/16^th UPI organised the 4. UPI Conference on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (“Regionalization and Harmonization in TVET”).

The present 9^th Issue of TVET@Asia links to some of the conference’s major topics. It comprises ten papers addressing a range of the most relevant topics regarding the approaches and didactical settings of WIL. The papers submitted discuss the theoretical concepts of WIL, in different occupational areas and target groups involved in implementing WIL and the meaning and consequences of WIL for educational policy. The following authors and topics present the potentials of WIL:

PETER DEHNBOSTEL and THOMAS SCHRÖDER (TU Dortmund University, Germany) differentiate between Work-based and Work-related Learning – Models and Learning Concepts. Beginning with the historic origin of “Learning in the process of work”, the authors introduce the discussion and theoretical concepts behind the three variants of work-integrated learning, work-connected learning and work-orientated learning. They provide an understanding of the criteria of a learning organization, different types of work-based-learning are described and connected with corresponding learning concepts, especially the concepts of situative learning, self-directed learning and reflexive learning. The outlook demonstrates the meaning of the accreditation and validation of informal learning as a prospective relevant research topic.

SIRIPHORN PHALASOON (Technical University of Dortmund, Germany/Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Thailand) contributed a paper about School in Factory: an approach of Work-integrated learning in Thailand. Beginning with an introduction to the labour market situation and the educational system in Thailand, the author indicates the mismatch of supply and demand between educational institutes and industry. The government managed this issue by promoting work-integrated learning (WIL) as one of the strategies to cope with the challenges of producing job-ready graduates. As a result, various forms of WIL have been implemented and many instances of cooperation with industry sectors have been established through this educational program. The paper’s discussion summary concludes that in solving the problem of mismatching graduates’ qualifications regarding demand and supply, it is crucial to build effective collaborations between educational institutes and the industrial sectors to provide significantly better student education. The School-in-Factory project is one of the best practice-examples implemented in Thailand that showed appropriate positive outcomes for all stakeholders.

XUAN TIEN VO (University of Technology and Education, Vietnam) is detailing The concept of CDIO in Vocational Teacher Education in Vietnam. At the beginning the author reveals the gap between the need for specifically skilled labour forces (required in industry) and the quality of the labour forces trained by TVET institutions in Vietnam. The results of a field study that examined on-the-job-training at companies point to the positive effects of WIL within a cooperation between TVET institutions, companies and universities. The WIL concept is based on the CDIO principle and presented in the form of a best-practice example.

ILHAMDANIAH SALEH (Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia) has titled her paper The Role of Vocational Training in Reducing Unemployment Rate in the Outlying States of United States of America. She analyses the contribution of vocational training in reducing the unemployment rate in four outlying states of the United States. Using the data from the U.S. Census and a logistic regression method, the positive results of WIL confirm the theoretical predictions and suggest that vocational training increases the likelihood of the unemployment rate to decline. Despite the statistical limitations, the author also gives recommendations for further research activities and the continuation and improvement of vocational programs from U.S. Department of Labor.

TRUONG MINH TRI, BUI VAN HONG and VO THI XUAN (HCMC University of Technology and Education, Vietnam) focus on Self-directed learning in the context of internationalization in TVET in Vietnam. In their paper both sides of the learning process are discussed: on the one hand self-directed learning emphasising the active part the learners (students) have to play in identifying their needs and learning goals. On the other hand, trainers need adequate teaching content, teaching methods, studying methods and examination methods. Finally, self-directed learning can be linked within real work processes to satisfy the demand of training human resources for industrial a modern workforce. The conclusions link the discussion with self-directed learning skills and the challenges for students (that can finally be transferred to the discussion of WIL concepts).

BART HOREMANS (Belgian Development Agency, Palestine) and RANDA HILAL (OPTIMUM for Consultancy and Training, Palestine) contributed an article called Closing the Gap: The Introduction of Work Based Learning Schemes in Palestine. A pilot programme for introducing work-based learning (WBL) schemes that support private-public partnerships in TVET, is discussed by the authors presenting different preparatory steps and the roll-out of a WBL concept in Palestine as well as the first preliminary results on the effect towards employment opportunities for its graduates. The paper includes some lessons learned about the implementation of WIL in the context of improving (or even changing) a TVET system.

BEATE DALLMEIER (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH), TVET Myanmar, focussing on her paper Work-integrated learning in-service teacher training at the Industrial Training Centre in Sinde she addressees how TVET-teachers’ competency development can be supported through the implementation of a mentoring structure at a TVET school in a remote area in Myanmar. This school aims to perform the transformation from input-oriented education towards Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) with the aim of improving the school’s labour-market-orientation. First experiences indicate how very supportive the mentoring structure and network synergies are.

THOMAS SCHRÖDER (TU Dortmund University, Germany) will introduce his paper on Work-based Learning in a Virtual Work Environment – the Future of Learning? He presents a didactical concept that integrates work-based learning, which is experiential and based on real work tasks comprising an input-based approach of E-learning, with both fruitfully combined in a virtual work and learning environment. Developed in the context of a research project this virtual concept at present only allows for a few specific occupational profiles from the IT Sector to participate. Most significantly, in the light of continuously advancing information technology, the concept itself may well point to a future path of work-based learning for those who have no direct access to real work

DING JINCHANG (Zhejiang Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, China) submitted a paper on Establishment of a Talent Cultivation Platform for the Intelligent Industry in China. Based on the Zhejiang Action Plan for Made in China 2025, the author reveals the change of China´s manufacturing industry and the demand for technical professionals. After discussing three main problems in the Higher Vocational Education sector in China the author outlines the three major practices of a highly regarded TVET institution in Zhejiang in coping with these challenges and fulfilling the objectives of the Made in China 2025-policy. Referring to the training of skilled workers for intelligent manufacturing and information technologies, some examples (e.g. setting up a training base for applied robot technology and a training centre for intelligent manufacturing) provide some clues to the possibilities of WIL implementation in TVET.

RAZALI BIN HASSAN (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia), MUHAMMAD MUJTABA ASAD (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia), QADIR MEHMOOD SOOMRO (OSHTC Pakistan) and FAHAD SHERWANI (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia) will discuss the Systematic Determination of Potential Hazards in TVET Activities in the Oil and Gas Industries. According to the paper’s overall findings, most of the drilling operations at onshore and offshore extraction sites are moderately hazardous in the targeted industries associated with safety, ergonomic, chemical and environmental hazards. Thus, a mixed-method research approach for the identification of hazardous activities is forwarded. The outcomes are seen by the authors as a guide and reference for further activities in the technical and vocational training sector focused on work-integrated-learning concepts.

All together the papers embrace the countries of Vietnam, Malaysia, South Korea, Indonesia, Myanmar, China, Germany and even Palestine. They offer theoretical concepts and practical approaches of linking work processes and learning to train skilled workers or rather expert trainers in TVET. Thus, Issue 9 shows the variety of WIL and the efforts that have been made in a dynamic developing region experiencing growing economic strength and educational expertise. Furthermore, the ASEAN and RAVTE networks are growing too, and together the improvement of the quality of TVET can be perceived over the entire international research community.

A very big thank you to all contributors – wishing you all great reading pleasure!

The editors of Issue 9

Sven Schulte, Tutin Aryanti, Ade Gafar Abdullah, Ana

CITATION

Schulte, S., Aryanti, T., Abdullah A. G., & Ana (2017). Editorial Issue 9: Enhancement of Work-
Integrated Learning (WIL) through cooperation of TVET Institutions, Companies, and Universities. In:
TVET@Asia, issue 9, 1-4. Online: http://www.tvetonline.
asia/issue11/editorial_schulte_etal_tvet9.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2017).

The vision of Digitalization and Industry 4.0 has been widely discussed. Furthermore, the topic encompasses a) a reorganization process of all industrial activities through new options for communication, triggered by the Internet of Things, and b) a massive change of private living conditions influenced by the extensive use of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS).

These developments have an impact in all countries, regardless of the individual state of development of industrial production. The central question arises whether the Dual System of Vocational Education and Training as practiced in Germany and some other European countries for the training of skilled workers in industry, handicraft and service tasks, is also an adequate system to provide answers to these challenges.

Apart from an analytical approach to the core elements of the Dual System and a critical assessment whether it can react swiftly to industrial and other developments, empirical studies will be evaluated that outline the requirements of Digitalization and Industry 4.0. The results of these analyses will then be used to work out whether the Dual System can provide satisfactory answers to contemporary paradigms. 

Keywords: Industry 4.0, Dual System, Digitalization, Work-Processes, Knowledge Society

1        Introduction – The discourse on digitalization

The world of work is currently undergoing decisive change through the influence of digitalization. Key terms which have been intensively applied (clear-cut definitions of these terms are not yet available – at best explanations oriented to specific situations can be identified) include: Fourth Industrial Revolution, Digital Revolution, Industry 4.0, Education 4.0, Work 4.0, Occupations 4.0, digitalization, networking and so on. All these terms can be reduced to the common denominator of new technologies that are directly or indirectly changing the automation of action processes, not only within the economy but in all spheres of our lives. Among others, robotics, sensor technology, Artificial Intelligence (AI), assistance systems, driver assistance systems have not been developed exclusively for industrial production but are also relevant in all imaginable areas beyond the world of work. These technologies are changing our everyday actions, our behavior and – in the long term –societal structures. This is sometimes symbolically underpinned by the terms “service society”, “knowledge society” or even “leisure society”, often as a contrast to our established work-oriented society.

This discourse primarily assigns special significance to vocational education, since TVET provides vocational qualifications and shapes occupations. Thus it is the key to coping with societal change, hence the discussion about digitalization is hugely significant in a social and ethical context.

After a multi-layered discussion of these terms during past years, a kind of consensus has meanwhile been found for the universal term “digitalization“ and variations hereof such as “digitalization process” or “digital networking”. Although this term is rather emphasizing the technological aspect of the development, this article understands digitalization in the sense of “digital networking”, opening up discourse on work-oriented and socio-political orientation as well as technological concerns. Digital networking means that machines, plants, products, computers, software systems and human beings will be intelligently interlinked, able to exchange data in real-time. Supporters of this development above all anticipate advantages to be triggered by greater efficiency in production and application of products and services. An example taken from the private sector is the so-called fitness bracelet whose performance can only be fully operational when linked to the internet.

2        Character of Industry4.0/Digitalization

2.1       Digitalization of the World of Work

The process of industrialization has meanwhile been going on for 250 years and consists of a frequently changing complex network of corporate-organizational and socio-institutional arrangements which also give course for ample reasons to initiate technical innovations (Brödner 2016). This process has been accompanied by a detailed corporate division of work, a consistent rise in productivity and a decrease in labour costs. The nature of work itself has changed throughout this process (Wetzel 2015; Haase 2017).

The core statement in this context focusses on

−      the mechanization and automation of specialized manual labour and

−      the computerization of brain work (knowledge work) with the aid of algorithmic signal processing (digitalization) (Brödner 2016, 11).

The scientification of production and, above all, the process of automation supports this process. Brynjolfsson & McAfee (2014) underpin the meaning of the term digitalization or “Fourth Industrial Revolution” by stressing that speaking of digitalization alone is not enough. Digitalization not only encompasses digitally controlled physical processes equipped with interfaces to human beings (as is the case for machine control devices such as CNC programs, free programmed control systems, drive regulations for drive systems). What is new is the fact that many digitally controlled processes are horizontally and vertically networking with the internet via top-level data exchange (e.g. Internet of Things and Services, (Bremer 2017). Furthermore, these processes are supported by the mechanisms of Artificial Intelligence, creating completely new spaces for interaction between machines (e.g. multi-agent systems), as well as between humans and machines (Becker 2016). Some examples:

−      Linking of products and information (e.g. via RFID chips),

−      High velocity of information transfer (broadband),

−      Unlimited storage options (“Cloud” / “Big Data”),

−      Virtualization of equipment and products (“Cyber Physical Systems or CPS),

−      Quick processing of a high wealth of information (real-time processing, Big Data, computer farms)

−      Objects communicating among each other (“Embedded Systems“),

−      Globally accessible data and services (smart technologies).

Less technologically oriented dimensions are:

−      high velocity innovation,

−      optimization and mastering of processes,

−      cooperation in heterogeneous teams,

−      creativity during processes of problem solving.

Hence there is more at stake beyond digitalization in the technical sense. Brynjolfsson & McAfee (2014) have labelled this development “The Second Machine Age” and acatech – German Academy of Science and Engineering – (2013) named it the “Fourth Industrial Revolution”.

“Digitalization” as used in this paper is understood to include the impact of artificial intelligence, taking into consideration its societal effects as well as the context of Industry 4.0. This is meant to underpin the special features of this form of digitalization relevant for work in the production sector. This concept of digitalization underlines the social relevance of these developments, the changing structure of interpersonal communication, man-machine interaction and machine-machine interaction with their considerable impact on the shaping of work, work organization, the economy, learning, necessary qualifications and occupations.

2.2       Technological Requirements of Industry 4.0/Digitalization

Schwab (2016) indicates that the implications of the Digitalization/Industry 4.0 for jobs and employment depend on the interplay between the destruction effect, when technology enhances disruption and automation substitutes capital for labour, thus forcing workers to seek out further fields of application for their skills. Moreover, there is the capitalization effect which describes the development of new jobs, occupations and businesses created by the demand for new goods and services. According to Schwab, the innovations of IT and other disruptive technologies raise productivity by replacing existing workforces, rather than creating new products which require more labour to produce them. Such developments lead to employment growth in (high income) knowledge intensive and creative jobs, as well as in low income manual occupations which cannot be easily automated. At the same time, a significant reduction of middle income-routine jobs is going on (Schwab 2016). This leads to an increasing polarization of skills and income. Pfeiffer (2017) differently notes a significant increase in active labour in the field of complex maintenance processes in heavily digitalized production environments.

Studies which explore the demands of automation in work emphasize the “ironies of automation” which describe the dilemma of employees in highly automated environments: workers are involved in a controlling and monitoring function and yet, at the same time, they have less chance of completely understanding the actual processes due to increasing automation. This is a crucial insight in order to acquire the necessary experience for the solution of problems (Brainbridge 1983). Altogether, it has to be assumed that employees in production processes in various fields will continue to play an important role. The following questions need to be addressed:

−      How will workers interact with the new interrelated world of production, which due to all reports can be expected to be more intelligent than the present settings?

−      Which kind of changes will the profiles of qualification and competence undergo?

−      Why is this likely to happen? What are the most important and determining factors of influence for the design of networking processes?

This raises the question to which degree separate areas of production, such as machine building and information technology, can, in future, be addressed as hybrid clusters of competence in order to monitor intelligent production processes. Issues regarding training and changes to occupational requirements in reference to initial and further training have only been the subject of research since 2015. In any case, the hitherto cautious approach to these questions can probably be attributed to a lack of empirical studies.

Technological development in the context of digitalization definitely has to be addressed as a long-term strategical project which aims to create intelligent closed processes in production and its neighbouring fields as well as, ultimately, within the entire value-added chain of production. This calls for innovative concepts of interaction between man and machines in order to direct work processes in the future. The important features of Digitalization/Industry 4.0 are as follows:

−      A dynamic structure of business processes through the involvement of CPS may result in ad-hoc networking between these processes and hence result in their further optimization. This could, for example, reducing the material resources needed (Kagermann, Wahlster, & Helbig 2013).

−      The use of intelligent sensors and actors makes it possible to react quickly to change. In this process the technologies of Industry 4.0 support dynamic optimization in merging transfer processes in real time across locations.

−      Compared with preceding industrial revolutions, the optimization of strategic targets of production processes continues to play a central role. The involvement of CPS enables continuous optimization across the entire value-added chain with regard to the need for resources, energy consumption and reduced emissions.

−      Starting from the principle of maximum effect, the main potential of Industry 4.0 has to be seen in managing resources. Experts hold the opinion that an increase of production of up to 50 % is possible with the assistance of the concept of Industry 4.0, depending on the particular field in question (Jörgl 2014).

−      Industry 4.0 facilitates production tailored to the product needs of individual customers. The involvement of CPS makes it possible to address diverse customers and still manage to produce at low costs, in spite of small product numbers.

−      Redesigning a production hall into a “smart factory” which excels in high flexibility and versatility has to rely on a systematic transfer of organizational structures and processes. One of the anticipated effects of introducing Industry 4.0 is a vast reduction in processing time (Haeffs 2014; Brynjolfsson & McAfee 2014).

−      With Industry 4.0 new digital services can be established. This is based on the high variety of data from different sources, as well as the consecutive analysis of this data. Experts expect an increase in the rate of employment in particular for small and medium-sized companies, since business-to-business (B2B) services will increase in volume (ibid.).

−      The use of Industry 4.0 technologies secures transparency in processes, and this transparency serves as the basis for optimizing the decision-making-processes. This is true for development-related processes (e.g. reaction to change) as well as for production-related processes (e.g. intervention in the case of failures, introduction of new materials) and in general for goods which are ready for sale. Furthermore, the introduction of new CPS (e.g. systems geared to language or gestures) provides increased flexibility in ergonomic solutions for complex tasks (ibid.).

3        Challenges of Industry 4.0/Digitalization for the Dual System

Three phenomena, namely

−      continuously increasing complexity of work situations,

−      the accelerated pace of technological change in high-tech areas,

−      continuous improvement of quality

have severely shortened the reasonable “longevity” of relevant skills and capabilities. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze the impact of these three phenomena on training needs at the workplace (Loose & Juri 2008, 93). The main requirements of Industry 4.0/Digitalization are summarized below. The key question is whether the Dual System is able to manage these challenges.

3.1       Requirements for the Dual System

Within the context of Industry 4.0, work organization and work processes will undeniably change as automation and real-time oriented control are extended. This will also be the case in the scope of work and the interaction or communication between humans and technology, with notable consequences for the entire TVET system (Spöttl 2017).

The technological foundations of Industry 4.0 such as general connectivity, the internet, sensors, actors and “intelligent” CPS have resulted in a massive push for efficiency and a reduction of costs for products. The observation often made in this context regarding the substitution of cognitive work and routine tasks cannot remain without consequences for the design of occupational profiles (Becker & Spöttl 2019). Based on surveys in companies (case studies) and expert interviews (bayme vbm 2016), the challenges arising from the implementation of “Industry 4.0/Digitalization” can be summarized as follows:

1.     Skilled workers, master craftsmen, technicians, i.e. persons with occupational technical education and training and corresponding further training should be qualified for specializations pertaining to Industry 4.0. They must be able to master processes in their complexity and to safeguard flawless operation of plants.

2.     Mastering networked systems with decentralized intelligence, handling data and  analysis as well as the ability to safeguard flawless operation of plants are among the most important requirements for work on production sites. Furthermore, traditional skills in the workplace still need to be mastered and managed as well.

3.     The priorities identified thus far in general questions relating to Industry 4.0 must be extended to include technological priorities (CPS), organizational issues, work design questions, data security, programming techniques, trouble shooting and problem solving with the aid of support systems and data analysis.

This raises the question to which degree separate areas of production such as machine building and information technology can now be addressed as hybrid clusters of competence in order to monitor intelligent production processes (Spöttl 2018). Most probably, all employees in Industry 4.0 will have to face notably higher demands regarding complexity, abstract thinking and problem solving. Furthermore, employees will be expected to demonstrate exceptional competence with regard to self-directed action, communicative competence and self-management. Employees’ subjective ability and valuable potential will be under the microscope. This offers a chance for qualitative enrichment, interesting work connections, greater self-responsibility and self-fulfillment. It has to be assumed that employees in the production process in various fields will continue to play an important role. They need to be prepared for the challenges they will face in the future, with the appropriate qualifications.

Figure 1 shows domain-related requirements taken from surveys (ibid.).

         Figure 1:    Requirements following the implementation of Industry 4.0 as
                           named by master craftsmen, technicians and skilled workers

The survey in the field of application described had a multi-level design and was based on the use of qualitative instruments from vocational and social sciences: expert interviews (25), case studies (7), and expert workshops (3). Focus of the empirical work: changes at the shop-floor level. The survey aimed to identify changes on the production level and the effects they have on the shaping of occupational and competence profiles. The study is based on findings in the metal and electrical industries on the implementation of “Industry 4.0” and its consequences for skilled work, conducted under the author’s guidance in the years 2015/2016 (bayme vbm 2016).

The bayme vbm study (2016, 85f.) ultimately identified four lines of argument for the assessment of the qualification and competence levels required for skilled workers in maintenance departments for work with networked plants. The study also points to contents required for qualification and competence development:

−      One line of argument was that it seems to be impossible to qualify all persons working on a general level (generalists) to repair 80 per cent (at least) of all malfunctions. Therefore, wider and more basic initial training is favored. After several years of work in the company, they can then be trained as specialists in advanced training courses. In this light, the thesis was formulated that generalists are becoming less important.

−      Another line of argument was that the qualification of specialists with particular IT-knowledge often impacts on the internal hierarchy of companies. For example, it is not unusual for a person who has undergone continuous advanced training and even specialized in IT-technology to be eligible for a team leader position rather than take on the role of a qualified academic. Master craftsmen are already well qualified for leadership tasks and thus qualify as team leader candidates.

−      In a third line of argument, it was stated that the requirement level for skilled workers in production is usually very high and broad. Individual persons or generalists cannot necessarily complete given tasks. A typical solution is for companies to organize maintenance in teams composed of differently qualified specialists. As a rule, technicians fill a crucial position, contributing professional experience combined with high technical qualifications.

−      An especially interesting line of argument was the fact that, in highly automated plants, the software is the interface for all technical solutions. In this case, all tasks, especially service, maintenance and repair, have been structured around software tasks. Highly qualified technicians are necessary to safeguard this software-technological access to plants. Programming is left to the engineers.

These remarks suggest that a sharp differentiation between mechanics and electrics is no longer made. IT-based tasks in maintenance are clearly increasing. The above-mentioned task profiles are mostly an integration of partial tasks, often in connection with interdisciplinary cooperation within a network, based on a high grade of autonomy. Another indication is the ever closer interrelationship of technological units such as CPS and work organizational structures in order to optimize maintenance tasks.

The merger of information technological processes and maintenance processes calls for an orientation of initial and advanced training towards evolved technological levels and above all the changed perspectives. The decentralized intelligence linked to Industry 4.0 leads to an increased availability of data that is highly process-relevant to skilled workers. Maintenance still requires traditional manual skills as well as the mastering of SPS, robotics, pneumatics, hydraulics, drive technology etc. These, however, are no longer sufficient. Simply amending occupational profiles will not be enough. The authors of the bayme vbm study (2016, 4) call instead for a massive amendment of process orientation in occupational profiles. The perspective of maintenance processes has to be considered based on the process of informatization. Occupational and advanced training profiles must focus on these central developments. The above-mentioned fields of action are the basis for competence development and indicate a clear framework for meeting the described demand for occupational profiles.

3.2       Answers provided by the Dual System

The Dual System offers two main suggestions for coping with these challenges:

−      A traditional, time-oriented approach: experience-based training for tomorrow’s qualifications needs.

−      Open and dynamic development of “occupational structures” as the basic principle: The occupation or the occupational principle has great societal, educational and political and social importance (Spöttl 2016). The dissemination of digitalization is taking place in these three dimensions, amended by a technological dimension.

3.2.1      Experience-Based Training for Tomorrow’s Qualification Needs

The importance of the workplace for the training of skilled workers in high-tech-fields has already been widely accepted (Loose & Juri 2008). The two following statements, one from the international perspective and one from a national context, are examples of the increasing recognition around the world that training should focus strongly on the workplace as a learning environment:

−      abilities and knowledge relating to labour market demand are important in order to manage diverse work situations,

−      only through extensive cooperation between learning environments – including the workplace – can the quality of training be improved to the level needed.

Ultimately the intentions of training must be geared towards performance in the actual work situations. Any attempts to replicate or simulate its parameters will be ineffective. It is inexcusable that a comprehensive taxonomy of learning environments is still lacking. Such a taxonomy would elaborate on learning potential, which is inherent to different learning environments and facilitates the identification of correlations between types of learning (such as learning abstract information, understanding natural science phenomena through self-conducted experiments etc.) and particular learning environments.

The supreme role of the workplace as a learning environment already becomes apparent in a provisional appraisal of “matching” types of learning and learning environments. Yet considering the complex tasks of skilled workers, it is also obvious that we need the classroom and other institutional settings as additional learning environments for effective training. This insight is the conceptual cornerstone of any “dual” system of training (see Figure 2).

Figure 2:       The Need to Combine Different Learning Environments (Loose & Juri 2008; update by Spöttl & Schulte 2019)

Consequently the training of skilled workers requires the combination of two different domains: the “training institution” and the “enterprise” and possibly further variations such as the laboratory on the institutional side and the training corner at the workplace on the enterprise side. Often this is referred to as “theory” being addressed in an institutional setting, whilst “practice” is attended to at the workplace.

Attributing the role of the supreme learning environment for training to the workplace requires the acknowledgement of enterprises – in other words, the private sector – as the main stakeholder in training. Consequently, when designing the most effective learning constellation to train skilled workers, much more needs to be done than merely “patching” learning environments together. Stakeholders in these learning environments tend to have different mindsets and their successful cooperation has to be secured.

One of the basic pillars of the Dual System is the interlinking of learning at the workplace and theoretical reflection. It offers a number of possibilities as to how increasingly complex objects of learning – mainly due to digitalization – could be broken down for the learner in order to make them comprehensible. A systematization of learning content and a close alignment of options for different learning environments is necessary.

3.2.2      The occupational principle

The occupational principle normally claims that it cannot keep pace with the dynamics of economy. Thus the result of vocational training – i.e. to have an occupation – is irrelevant today. However, an analysis of the indicators of the occupational principle aims at indicators such as

−      personality development

−      shaping competence

−      future-proof qualifications

−      identity and

−      reflexive acting competence

shows that the demands of an occupation and thus vocational education, have already surpassed common understanding. Moreover it relies on the holder of an occupation that he/she can master the relevant tasks of his/her field and demonstrating creativity in order to contribute to high quality products. This contradicts the general image of occupations and professionals from a trade perspective. To safeguard this development, it is necessary to keep ordinances – i.e. the control mechanisms for vocational education up to date. The vocational concept must be conceived as a counter-concept to disruptions. It guarantees the quality of skilled employees required in the empirical work statements as described below.

−      The occupational structure as a basic principle

“During training as well as for work processes in gainful employment the occupation or occupational principle […] is of great societal, educational-political and social importance” (Spöttl 2016). Vocational training already imparts qualifications and work experiences relevant to the labour market. At the same time the readily available “Communities of Practice” ensure integration into existing social structures and the labour market…”

“An occupational structure also has an impact on integrative corporate power: The recent regulation and standardization of vocational education in Germany has generated clearly structured occupational profiles. Standardization with respect to content and procedures and/or framework conditions of a training course is often cited as an argument for the low level of unemployment in young people compared to other European countries and the high level of (skilled) training. Thus the transfer of trainees into the labour market is facilitated both for companies (by standardization) and young people themselves (by a high training quality).”

These statements have been confirmed in selected case studies (case) and expert discussions (E) (research method see chapter 3.1):

−      The Realignment of Man-Machine Interaction

Intensive discussions are currently being held about the role of humans in connection with further automation. All statements in case studies and expert discussions went into the same direction that automation must be designed in such a way as to ensure work opportunities for qualified skilled workers in production as shown by the example below:

“In the future, plants and their software will support skilled workers during troubleshooting. Information and analyses will be brought into context.” (Case D).

“Overall simple work tasks can be automated more easily. Automation today is just a question of money. The higher-quality work tasks, however, cannot be easily replaced.“ (E 1)

The surveys were unable to identify clear trends in the further development of man-machine interaction. However, the risks of a higher degree of automation were clearly highlighted:

“An important development in mass production is the fact that, due to automation, many tasks are geared to plant monitoring. In addition, these processes are highly standardized. This leads to a loss in sensitivity which is necessary to safeguard all process sequences. This entails a lot of risks.” (Case E)

The shaping of technology plays a very important role. The question is whether technology is shaped in a way to be operable by users and whether skilled workers are able to contribute their acquired competences. Key words such as assistance systems for skilled workers and cooperation between human beings and robots were mentioned. Here are some examples:

“Engineers and skilled personnel must also learn to conceive application systems by starting at the level of the users. It is important that they learn to apply technology usefully and manageably. The question must also be kept in mind how to design technology in a user-friendly and operable way. Considerable rethinking is necessary to overcome the dominating technology strand up until now. Assistant systems must be easy to operate!” (E 4)

“At the moment there is something like a coexistence between human being and robot. In this case, skilled workers show the robot where to take a grip. However, the related safety concepts are not yet mature. A collaboration – i.e. human being and robot are simultaneously working on the same work piece – is currently in preparation or even already real in some cases. Highly complex products, however, are as usual still machined by skilled workers or master craftsmen – by human beings.” (Case A)

Beyond the distribution of roles and control tasks between humans and machines, knowledge distribution will be decisive. Can the expert knowledge of a skilled worker be transferred to a machine? This is one of the central questions answered by a company representative as follows:

“Due to digitalization, the complexity of the plants is increasing because of the degree of networking. In order to safeguard stable production processes, knowledge and abilities must always be distributed between several persons. This means that it always takes persons who can mutually substitute one another. These safeguards also imply that process knowledge and product knowledge is saved in data bases” (Case B).

The overall statements made by companies show that a further diffusion of industry 4.0 technologies results in changes in industrial production, organization and cooperation between humans and machines. Clear or uniform tendencies cannot be identified through the survey as developments in the enterprises studied are following different paths. Company specific development strands are clearly dominating. All current considerations target the human being at the centre of interest, while concepts for the implementation of this approach still lack wider dissemination. Skilled workers of an occupational-corporate educational type play a predominant role in the interaction between man and machine. This has been confirmed by all statements.

4 Conclusions

Changing production systems which integrate more and more cyber-physical systems must be considered in the curricula for initial and further training. Employees can thus contribute to long-term improvement processes and process optimizations within the framework of the further development of the companies. This is not only true for occupations such as mechatronics, electronics technicians for automation technology or industrial mechanics who are currently mostly working in maintenance departments, but is also relevant for other industrial metal-technological and electro-technological training occupations. All industrial occupations must deal intensively with questions of digitalization and networking within Industry 4.0.

Maintenance will play a decisive role in the flawless operation of the factory of the future. If future development will focus on assistance/support systems as noted and if man (skilled workers on shop-floor level) is given the chance for co-shaping, Industry 4.0 can be used as an “assistance system”. The skilled worker will be able to contribute his or her individual competences to the work process. Competence requirements postulate that the necessary information for the mastering of work processes is provided and that adequate qualification approaches are made available for competence development. Skilled workers and technological applications would thus control and influence one another, whilst the power of decision remains in human hands.

Skilled workers have to deal with increasing demands in terms of system data interpretation. Above all, analytic capability and thinking in networks are prerequisite in order to deal with abstract information and to gain a swift overview of the production process. One of the most important challenges of the implementation of Industry 4.0 will be to control the flood of information (Big Data), providing specific information for each work process. If this succeeds, technology can be seen as a kind of assistance system to support humans in maintenance work, improving error and malfunction analyses. This can only succeed if skilled workers in the maintenance departments are actively involved into the development and the implementation of CPS technology for maintenance.

Skilled workers on the shop floor must receive processed data on the automated control of plant conditions to support them with troubleshooting, assessing damage and analyzing causes. Maintenance along the value-added chain requires in-company (vertical integration) and external cooperation (horizontal integration), transparency and trust. When using the idea of “Maintenance 4.0” as a highly complex, versatile and flexible system with man at the centre – i.e. the skilled worker on shop-floor level – the system also needs skilled workers who act as decision makers, controllers, maintenance staff, co-shapers and experts. Vocational education has the decisive role of qualifying skilled workers to meet challenges effectively.

The above article on changes of the shaping of work organization and man-machine interaction underlines the fact that skilled personnel – skilled workers, technicians or master craftsmen – still have an important role to play in the future. Tailor-made work tasks and cooperation and communication structures, however, will change considerably. Mastering work tasks and networked plants in all their variety will be a key focal point. This means that access to conventional technology of the plants will become less important, whilst solid comprehension of network structure control via software grows in importance. With respect to these requirements, the Dual System must be innovated within the next few years.

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Citation

Spöttl, G. & Schulte, S. (2019). The Dual System – Is it prepared for Digitalization and Industry 4.0? In: TVET@Asia, issue 13, 1-16. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue13/spoettl_schulte_tvet13.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2019).

The article evaluates an example of how a curriculum can be developed for a multiplier-training that is based on the individual work-processes of the participants. Besides this action-oriented and “pragmatic” approach to curriculum development, document analyses and expert interviews were conducted to derive further components for the content of the training. These additional foundations enclose framework conditions of the occupational tasks as well as a systematic review of the interaction between the levels of the TVET market and the labour market in Azerbaijan.

The curriculum was carried out in Azerbaijan by skilled career counsellors using a mixed-methodapproach. It followed the objective to teach and practice consulting techniques that can be applied within the counselling process with young people in the phase of vocational orientation by using action-oriented methods. The main focus is set on work and learning assignments which will be evaluated based on the preliminary central questions as well as previously self-chosen objectives. Altogether the curriculum followed three objectives: it a) strengthens the action-oriented competences, b) is dealing with the topics and requirements of real work situations by the orientation towards real work-processes and c) aims at enhancing the systemic structures of career counselling.

After pointing out the main setup and content of the developed curriculum, this article will reflect on how this work-process oriented training can be enhanced by embedding work and learning assignments. This includes selected evaluation results of the training and their relation to the theories of the development of work-based learning-oriented curricula and finally some further remarks on the ongoing process of establishing vocational education as a scientific discipline.

Keywords: Work and Learning Assignments, work-process oriented curriculum, career counselling.

1 The Meaning of WLA for Curriculum Development in Azerbaijan

1.1 The Concept of Work and Learning Assignments (WLA)

Work and Learning Assignments (WLA) support experiential learning in a real work environment and its validation and accreditation. The real work, preferably a holistic work assignment and its subsequent work-process, is constitutive for the competence development of the individual learner (Schröder 2009) and can be combined with organizational learning and development (Schröder 2017). Work and Learning Assignments need to be systematically distinguished from Learning and Work Assignments which are in many aspects similar, but are being employed in institutions of formal learning, such as vocational training centers or vocational schools.

The concept of Work and Learning Assignments (WLA) has already been developed and established during the 1980s in the light of the change of different models of work organization used as new forms of in-company training. The starting point of this innovative didactical approach can be seen within the work action manifesting itself within real work- processes. The hands-on development and implementation of WLA is based on cognitivist learning psychology on experiential learning (Dewey 1950) and on the theory of action (Schröder, Dehnbostel 2007).

During the 1990s WLA were evolving and established themselves. They were also approved as new organized and structured learning methods. The usage of WLA was also accompanied by the orientation of TVET towards a new key objective, comprising the development of vocational action competences with specially stressing reflexivity as a precondition for lifelong competence development, regardless of the learning environment.

The aspiration towards the WLA from the didactical point of view is obvious, above all by the work-process context, so that the close connection between working and learning is stressed. Moreover, by using work assignments within learning processes, the quality of the workprocess and the content of work must not be reduced (cf. Rauner 1995).

The following criteria can be mentioned as important guidelines (cf. Schröder, Dehnbostel 2007) for the development process of a WLA:

–          The WLA should be defined with regard to a holistic work and learning activity. Moreover it should include aspects of occupational, social and personal competences.

–          During the handling/ process, the WLA considers a high self-responsibility and self-guidance.

–          The learning process stimulated by the WLA is work- and experience-related, but also includes theoretical content/ background.

–          The structure and organization of work should be reflected.

–          The WLA are chosen and enriched in order to reach the objective of competence development.

Today, WLA are acknowledged worldwide and applied as a method for teaching and further education and training, particularly addressing informal learning processes, experiential learning and the documentation of newly gained competences.

With respect to the didactical aspiration of WLA, learning is seen as a unit of participatory planning, cooperation-in-action, problem-solving activities, an assessment of working results and reflection steps. An important demarcation feature against eponymous concepts of Learning and Work Assignments lies within the aspect that a work-process is seen as an unchangeable, constitutive element of WLA. It is not primarily about the question of how to organize a learning process, but rather about the question for the elements within the work- process that are relevant for learning.

In the presented approach the WLA are assuming the issue to combine theoretical input with team-oriented, specific work assignments and thereby promoting competence development. The gained experience knowledge and problem-solving activities will be documented, reflected and could e.g. be transferred into knowledge management activities.

1.2 Framework Conditions in Azerbaijan – Challenges of the Labour Market

The impulse of conducting a training regarding job guidance and career counselling activities was triggered by the main goal of the further development of the current institutional and legal framework conditions in Azerbaijan. The general objective consisted of the improvement of career counselling by participants of the Employment Centres (EC) and State VET Agencies (VA) through two “state-of-the-art”- trainings which aimed at enhancing career guidance capacities.

Moreover, a central study also stated some aspects that led to the awareness of a need for further training (GIZ 2016). The study mentions the predominant role of the government as well as of the VET Agencies. While the first stakeholder, the Ministry of Education (MoE), is mainly aiming their political activities at the improvement of the quality and standards of TVET, including investments in the infrastructure, the second stakeholder, the VET Agencies, are expected to cooperate with the MoE “in the areas of curricula, training and infrastructure development regarding initial Vocational Education and Training” (ibid. p. 7).

Azerbaijan has a total population of round about 9.6 million (50.3% women; 47% living in rural areas, 23% living in the capital city of Baku). The economy counts among the fastest growing ones worldwide (the per capita income (pci) increased from 300 US $ (in 2004) to nearly 8.000 US $ (in 2013), however, very strongly depending on the oil sector (due to the collapse of the oil price, the pci also decreased to around 6.000 US $ in the year 2015). An ongoing diversification of the economy towards different strong sectors (e.g. agriculture, tourism) is the most important present challenge. The labour market is currently employing a workforce of 3.7 million, 1.3 million in the public sector and 2.4 million in the private sector. Most of the people are working in the agriculture industry while the building sector and the service sector are becoming increasingly relevant (cf. BAMF 2014). The unemployment rate amounted to 5.1% in 2016.

At the moment, the activities in Azerbaijan are primarily aiming at improving both the supply and the demand sides of the labour market in order to provide a better foundation for employment and will operate in the following intervention areas:

−     Strengthening the capacities for improving competitiveness in sectors relevant for employment (especially for tourism and agriculture sector);

−     Cooperation between private and public sector to improve the labour market relevance of training courses;

−     Strengthening the regional and international exchange of experience in (dual oriented) vocational training.

In Azerbaijan the programme is focusing on the fields of agriculture and tourism, generally included in the priority areas of the developed “Strategic Road Map” for 11 sectors. The Strategic Road Map indicates the need for a qualified labour force and associated skills and knowledge. Therefore it was decided to support the Employment Centres and VET Agencies in improving their quality of services in the area of career guidance and counselling.

In spite of this overall strategy, the country is currently facing economic and educational challenges, involving the efforts for an annually increasing Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the need of fighting poverty especially in the rural regions, supporting small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in their search for skilled workers and finally matching the qualifications of the educational system with the needs of the labour market.

1.3 The Training in Azerbaijan – Objectives and Participants

On the one hand the objectives of the training were derived by cooperative activities between members of TU Dortmund and experts from central stakeholders in Azerbaijan, particularly the Ministries and skilled workers from counselling institutions. On the other hand, the objectives have been stated and detailed by a demand analysis (cf. Chapter 2.3). As a summary, the following aspects had to be fulfilled by the training:

−     Improving the current status of career counselling.

−     Improving the quality of career guidance and counselling activities via improving professional capacities of the relevant staff members engaged in these activities.

−     Introducing new approaches on career guidance via conducting a range of training courses and offering advisory support to the relevant institutions (Employment Centres and State VET Agency).

−     Acquiring new up-to-date and work-relevant knowledge on structures and procedures of Career Counselling and Guidance for the VET system and Employment Service System from Germany as a benchmark.

−     Learning from other participants about the specific conditions in Employment Centres and VET System in Azerbaijan.

−     Developing own ideas and concepts on how to improve the existing system with a special focus on enhancing the cooperation between the two institutions at local level.

As for the participants, it was discussed to work together with experienced staff members from all the stakeholders (EC, VET Agency, Vocational schools) in order to train “multipliers” who would spread their (new) knowledge after the end of the training. The invited participants have to meet requirements that were detailed as follows:

−     The participants should have experience in their relevant field and must show above average performance.

−     The participants should show a high degree of motivation to learn and to improve the system they are working in.

−     The participants should be able to act independently and self-reliantly if they are given the freedom to make their own decisions and to shape their work environment.

−     The participants should be creative thinkers, open minded, communicative, and innovative team workers.

−     The participants should be prepared to act as future-oriented Agents of Change.

−     The participants should be willing to proceed as multipliers, learning facilitators and to share their knowledge in their relevant community.

−     The participants should show basic leadership qualities such as critical thinking, quality awareness, responsibility for work outcome, and teamwork.

−     The participants should be prepared to discuss, to present in front of a group and to share knowledge during training.

It was the main goal to develop a common understanding of the specific needs of the participants of this training from the different points of view of the respective experts. Finally the training course encompassed 27 participants (13 women, 14 men, aged between 25 and 50; two participants of the MoL; eight participants from vocational schools; participants from EC; 17 participants from VET Agencies).

2 Development of a Curriculum

2.1 The Term “Curriculum” from a Scientific Perspective

In Germany, there is a constantly on-going tradition of discussing the term “Curriculum”. At the beginning of the last century, terms like “curriculum” or ”curriculum development” had been subordinated under the debates about general didactics and questions about the learning content. However, since 1967, the term curriculum was oriented towards the discussion in the Anglo-Saxon countries, particularly the USA. From that point there has been a more and more scientific orientation and an establishment (of research about theories and approaches) of curriculum development (cf. Robinsohn 1969; Reetz 1995; Huisinga 2005). However, the follow-updiscussion in the decades of the 1980s and 1990s did at first not very closely follow or rather did not generate a lot of new input.

Nevertheless, on the one hand a didactics-driven discussion about teaching and learning research and on the other hand research on concepts of curriculum development were emerging, further developed among others by Robinsohn, Frey, van Hentig, Blankertz, Achtenhagen as the best-known researchers. Altogether the debates about the term Curricula are held from different perspectives. The discussion about subject-orientation as a reference for different types of training could as well be in the focus as concepts for framing and contextualization of content or even on curricula that are conducted on the ground of learning theory approaches.

Later, the discussion of curricula development again played an increasingly important role in European scientific communities (Spöttl, 2009). This discussion has taken place in an interdisciplinary way and gradually increased links to the world of work and to the employment system. The merging economic systems of the European Union provided the background and impetus for this discussion. Education systems are thus challenged to safeguard the acquisition of competences and to work according to standards known and acknowledged in all (European) countries. The impact on the further development of approaches of curriculum development was based on the political position of the European Commission, which has formulated five objectives:

−     The improvement of educational standards in Europe.

−     An easier access to learning in all phases of life.

−     The actualization of the definition of basic skills for the knowledge society.

−     The opening of general and vocational training to the local environment, to Europe and to the world.

−     The best possible use of resources (Commission of the European Union 2001).

While the idea of a common European educational policy has long been established, education and training in the individual countries are carried out according to highly diversified curricula structures. Nevertheless there is a close interrelationship between employees’ competences and curricula: “Curricula determine the framework conditions and the prerequisites for competence development. They determine the extent to which the competences to be developed will be broad, flexible and adequate for the labour market” (Spöttl 2009, 1628).

The understanding of the term curriculum in the context of this paper is focusing mainly on the content and the objectives of vocational education and training. At the same time the aspects of organization, planning, implementation and evaluation of teaching and learning processes belong to a holistic comprehension of curriculum. Thereby the development of a curriculum comprises a complex process that cannot be separated from questions about the aim of qualification and normative decisions about the content-related justification. Curriculum development is seen as a more action-oriented approach compared to curriculum research (cf. Huisinga 2005). At the same time, curriculum development is a part of the duty of TVET research as well as of educational policy (ibid.). Nowadays, there are a lot of different approaches that are emphasizing e.g. action-orientation, time aspects, the meaning of institutional settings or teacher vs. learner orientation.

As soon as researchers are aiming at in-depth measurements of competence development in the context of work-related challenges and within vocational settings, it is to question which particular approach of curriculum development is appropriate. Especially in Germany, the empirical foundation of curriculum research along with qualification research is seen as an important objective of occupational research that needs a better legitimation and establishment. International approaches (e.g. DACUM or Competency Based Training Concept) are in contrast focusing on a more pragmatic implementation and use of curriculum development concepts.

2.2 General Approaches and Aspects of Curriculum Development

Learning in and during vocational work-processes and/or work-oriented change in vocational training is being discussed everywhere triggering the question of sources for the structuring and shaping of the respective curricula. The important task for conducting training courses is to find out which learning contents should find their way into vocational education and training, followed by the justification of how the learning contents has to be didactically structured. Contents with a special relevance for curricula are ground-breaking work interrelationships that have to be identified with the help of qualifications research. Such contents are the basis for conceiving complex learning and work arrangements for the qualification of employees for occupational fields. Numerous curriculum approaches – above all when developed by work scientists – reveal a work orientation.

The orientation towards “real work-processes” has been one of the central principles in TVET since the paradigm change in the 1990s which replaced the traditional, Tayloristically oriented work organisation by the enrichment of occupational tasks and “supported by further accompanying measures resulting in the implementation of self-organized team or group work, the reduction of corporate hierarchy levels and in the continuous further development of the necessary specialist and individual competences of the staff. At the same time the companies were prepared to establish a new learning culture calling for a life-long and self-organized learning of the employees in order to successfully face the swiftly changing and ever more complex world of work” (Spöttl, Schulte 2009).

Today, the relocation of learning into the company and the ongoing work-processes is increasingly dominating the organisation of work- processes and the shaping process of curricula. Companies and educational approaches in TVET are acknowledging the “direct usability of learning outcomes in the work process, the relevance of problem-oriented learning for skilled workers and the long-term value of acquired experience knowledge for the occupational practice” (Molzow-Voit, Schulte 2015). This new perspective finally enables companies to increase the effectiveness and sustainability of further training courses. Thus also employees are benefiting from the approach of a more holistic way of competence development.

As a summary, there are some challenging requirements for shaping curricula in a sustainable way: “A curriculum must not only perform better than simply answering to the needs of the labour market and to ensure that the imparted qualifications can be made use of. It must also react to the changes in the labour market and take into consideration the multi-dimensional requirements of employees/apprentices and the learning process. These are all normative determinations for the quality of a curriculum which are subject to different criteria depending on their purpose” (Becker, Spöttl 2006). In order to ensure a work orientation for curricula, vocational education scientific work-process analyses concentrate on the identification of work interrelationships and the dimensions of skilled workers. Scientifically oriented work-process analyses for vocational education pursue the following three aims:

−     To identify the competences for coping with and shaping of occupational work tasks;

−     To access the most important coherences for competence development;

−     To determine the work-process knowledge for the shaping of business and work- processes.

With their three categories of objectives, i.e. competence, competence development and work-process knowledge, these objectives hint at competing principles for the determination of the contents of curricula. Reetz and Seyd presume three different curriculum structures and approaches (science principle, personality principle and situation principle) and predicted well in advance of the introduction of learning fields that there would be an increasing importance of the principle of personality in vocational education practice and a continuous dominance of the principle of science at the macro-level with its specialized scientific structures (cf. Reetz, Seyd 1995). Work-process analyses take into consideration all three principles as conceived by vocational education science (cf. Spöttl 2008).

2.3 An Example: Identifying the Needs by Demand Analysis

The approach of conducting a curriculum for the (learning) content of the mentioned training in Azerbaijan mainly consisted of the application of three methods: It was a mixture of ) a document analysis, b) a group expert interview and c) an online questionnaire for a requirement analysis filled in by the participants prior to starting the training. This combination picks out two central methods of the vocational and educational science approach (cf. Becker, Spöttl 2015) and pursues an international common, pragmatic approach by questioning the prospective participants.

a)      Document analysis: A study named “The Potential for Dual Vocational Education and Training” and the “Strategic Roadmap for Vocational Education and Training Sector in the Republic of Azerbaijan” have been analysed with respect to identified needs for job guidance and career counselling in Azerbaijan. Based on the current framework situation and in the context of medium- and long-term objectives, the strategic targets of Azerbaijan’s government are aiming at closing the gap between the labour market and the need of skilled workers by reforms of the educational system and especially by improving the training of teachers and counsellors. The targets are followed by an action plan emphasizing the need of better cooperation between educational institutions, public and private sector and describing a recruiting process for new qualified specialists for the VET system. The analysis came to the conclusion that the German Dual System and the way of job guidance and career counselling in Germany should be used as a best-practice example and should be discussed in reference to a transfer of options or at least development inputs for Azerbaijan.

b)      Group expert interview: During a start-up-meeting with experts and stakeholders from Azerbaijan, an expert group discussion provided the basis for the structure and the content of the training. The interview guideline was based on information collected through the analysis of relevant documents provided by GIZ. It was the main goal to develop a common understanding of the specific needs of the participants of such a training from the point of view of experts. This interview was conducted in January 2018 with seven experts working in the Ministries (MoE and MLSP) and the VET Agency and with two experts from GIZ. The interview was documented and analysed by the TU Dortmund. The summary of these findings served as a basis for a demand-oriented design of the training on career counselling and guidance.

c)      Requirement analysis: An online-survey was developed by TU Dortmund and GIZ, based on the initial results of the analysis as above. The objective of the online survey was to find out which topics were most relevant for the participants. 30 persons participated in the online survey, but not every person completed the entire questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised 56 items (and five questions on the biographical background) covering the following topic areas:

−     Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

−     Employment Centre Structures and Services (ESS)

−     Job and Study Orientation (JSO)

−     Counselling Approaches and Methods (COM)

The questionnaire was analysed on the level of the single items and added up the answers that “strongly agreed” (++) or “agreed” (+) to the question whether this mentioned topic should play an important role during the training. The following aspects reached the highest amount of approval and therefore  are in the centre of the theoretical input during the training:

−     Influence of educational background towards the job and study orientation? (~95%)

−     Overall objectives of Vocational Education and Training? (~87%)

−     Regional and local cooperation structures in career counselling? (~85%)

−     Ways of cooperation between local players and employment Centres? (~85%)

−     How to address labour market relevance of VET programs? (~84%)

−     Insight into the difficulties and problems in VET? (~80%)

−     How does employer commitment contribute to the quality of VET? (~80%)

−     What are the central areas of activities for career counselling? (~80%)

−     Which competencies are required for counselling processes? (~79%)

2.4 The Core of a Work-based Curriculum: Work and Learning Assignments and Action Orientation within Group Work

To bridge the first and second training, the participants were given the task to develop a concept related to the WLA-approach. The intended idea was to combine the two trainings in a productive and learning conducive manner and to initiate a transfer of knowledge into action-oriented projects. The “concept-to-be-developed” should have a relevance to the participant´s work situation. Moreover it should include the perspective to be implemented in their institution. The concept of this approach of a work-integrated work and development task is well-known in TVET (cf. Schröder 2008) and emphasises the meaning of a work process for the development of occupational competences. In order to more strongly emphasise the work-process orientation, the paper will rely more on the term “Work and Learning Assignment” (WLA). The WLA approach contains a didactical perspective that is referring to the combination of working and learning within real processes and is thereby using the contents of daily work for curriculum development. It can be assumed that the linking of learning processes with the accomplishment of real work-processes is furthermore interesting for companies, human resources managers and especially vocational pedagogues for conducting further vocational training courses (cf. Figure 1).

Figure 1:      The work process as a basic for action-orientation, didactical inputs and reflection (Schröder 2017, 179).

In more detail, the task was to jointly develop a concept on a system element likely to contribute to an enhanced career counselling in the future practice. The participants were asked to form groups according to their needs and to draft an initial idea, preferably in a team of at least one participant from each institution/stakeholder. During the group work some general questions guided the groups and gave an orientation of thinkable important aspects that should be considered (cf. Figure 2).

Figure 2:      Steps and ideas for creating a WLA

The groups documented their conceptual idea in a short paper, describing the idea, the objectives and milestones of their own WLA. The results were presented and reflected during the second training. The development of the WLA implied the chance that relevant results were produced for Azerbaijan and that the participants learned to collaborate in a target-oriented manner.

3 Results of the Demand Analysis and Structure of the Training

3.1 Learning Content of the Curriculum

The main goal was specified during the expert group interview on the aspect that by supporting vocational training and qualification the supply of qualified labour will increase, i.e. by trainees that have successfully completed initial and continuing education. As a result of the training the participants should be better prepared to cope with the requirements and their tasks in enterprises. In the medium- and long-term, it will contribute to reduce structural unemployment and underemployment and to support a social and sustainable economic development. The scope of content of the Training on Job Guidance and Career Counselling was determined and divided into four central topics (cf. Figure 3):

Figure 3:      Overview of the content of the modules/units

Within the first Module, TVET Systems, the structure, function and central elements of the German TVET System have been in the focus. During the various units, the presentations gave an overview of the structures and institutions of TVET in Germany, explained the so-called “Dual System” of TVET and the reasons for employer commitment in Germany and discussed elements and developing processes of TVET Systems in general. Moreover one unit focused on innovative didactics and organisational development in TVET while one input also outlined the issues of assessment, measurement and validation of competences.

Module II: Employment Service System (ESS) was mainly about the structures of the labour market in Germany and about the ways of matching job seekers with the activities of the Federal Labour Agencies in Germany. Moreover the module showed how the regional structures and cooperation between the different stakeholders are working, which laws are fundamental and how the organizational and financial support is given to persons who are seeking either training or a (new) job. The module was embedded into the question of current challenges and into possibilities of transferring some aspects to Azerbaijan.

Module III: Job and Study Orientation (JSO) is about examples and activities of different ways of orientation and decision making processes for starting an apprenticeship or choosing a further training for a changed job orientation. These activities are embedded in the educational system and supported by various rural and local stakeholders and institutions. Moreover, there are already some instruments and career choice models available in Germany and even theories about influential factors in reference to career choices of young people.

The fourth Module, Counselling Approaches and Methods, was the most important one for the practical part of the participants. Moreover, this module guided the training during the second week and mixed up some short inputs and some exercises and methods about the counsellor him-/herself, the relationship to his/her clients and about communication and counselling situations and frameworks. Starting with challenges and structures of counselling situations, the attitudes and roles of a counsellor played a major role in this module. Beside this there were some very useful methods, like different types of questions, reframing techniques, circular questions as well as methods to support decision making processes or to know your client better (and his/her skills and social environment).

3.2 The Presentation and Discussion of the WLA

The following findings represent in a nutshell the presentations and discussions from the group work activities referring to the Work and Learning Assignments:

1. Career and Job Guidance Centre

The first group developed a WLA dealing with the “Establishment of a Career and Job Guidance Centre”. The main purpose was to initiate and continue a stronger cooperation between the relevant stakeholders, in that case VET Agency, Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, Labour Office, Trade Unions, and additional International Organizations (like GIZ) and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO). Three main objectives have been named by this group:

−     In order to improve the availability and dissemination of information about occupations, the new centre should be comparable to an information centre working with the possibilities of new digital media. Every occupation, its requirements and preconditions should be described, complemented by further information and addressable contact persons.

−     The ongoing promotion for TVET: The TVET System is not highly appreciated in Azerbaijan compared to academic education. Due to the lack of skilled workers this aspect was seen as an important way to change this situation.

−     Decreasing unemployment aimed at activities especially for job-seekers who should benefit from a cooperative and holistic counselling approach and guidance during their job-seeking activities.

The group did not see any greater challenge that could prevent the idea from realisation, but emphasized the need of to involve the employers. Two main phases of realisation are mentioned: construction of the centre and equipment (with information technology and staff). Social Media should play a greater role in PR-activities and should point out the benefits of this centre for improving the success of job and career guidance.

2. “Road of Your Life”

The second group argued about a concept called “Road of Your Life” and discussed the whole biography of an individual on his/her way from school until retirement. The idea mainly emphasized the need of coordination and cooperation between Employment Centres and VET Agencies. The following objectives are justifying the concept:

−     The better the cooperation between both mentioned institutions, the better it is possible that the individual can make a good choice of his/her profession. The cooperation should aim at providing the individual with information, by counselling him/her in his/her decision-making-process and by working together on searching for suitable apprenticeship and job vacancies.

−     The cooperation should already take place during the last years in the general schools. This includes teachers, but also employers in pre-vocational activities.

−     Finally the advantage also lies in the positive economic aspects: By helping unemployed persons they are no longer in a need to receive a basic income. On the contrary, the worker is paying taxes and is thus increasing the GNP.

Altogether, the preparations in school and the cooperation should lead to a most effective and professional consultation. The group also emphasized the fact that especially teachers, but also the staff in EC and VET Agency, should be trained. This is one of the main challenges, as well as the financial aspect for the activities, the trainings and the prevocational measures. One explicitly mentioned activity was an “open house day” at school, inviting experienced experts that can tell about their profession and answer questions posed by interested pupils.

3. A “Complex Comprehensive Approach”

The third idea concentrated on a complex comprehensive approach. Not only one aspect should be specified. Moreover, a number of activities should be collected that together would present a holistic way of job guidance and career counselling. This includes e.g. job guidance activities that already start at schools, the preparation for the educational staff by training them to highly skilled professionals of counselling, the strengthening of the position and duties of VET Agencies and by starting an alliance between EC and VET Agencies in order to better match the different activities and at the same time to avoid a repetition of activities. The following objectives and advantages were mentioned by the group:

−     It is important to have an early starting point for Job Guidance activities. It is considered an important contribution to the country to increase the employability (with all the inherent positive effects).

−     Like the other groups, this approach also saw the need and the positive aspects of cooperation between employers, teachers and local TVET staff. Besides that, a strong connection to the private sector was also mentioned as a precondition for improvement.

The main efforts to promote and support Job Guidance activities should be made by newspapers and by the use of digital media to keep the ideas and their importance in the minds of pupils and every involved institution.

4. “Discover Yourself”

The fourth idea presented as a WLA was called “Discover Yourself” and started with a short historical background that showed the importance of higher education (with the example of reading skills and the success of scientific achievements).

−     In general the group stressed the point of counselling as a holistic, lengthy process starting in Kindergarten and followed up until graduation with a Master’s Degree.

−     The guidance activities starting at an early age should culminate in concrete implementation activities leading to a decision-making process especially in the 9th and 11th grade.

−     One important aspect was dealing with the child-parents-relationship. The objective is to avoid that the pupils are being pushed too much by their parents instead of making their own choice. This gap should be closed.

Two ideas have been mentioned to support the “Discover Yourself”-project: first there should be advertisement on TV, and second the parents should be actively involved in the consultation process (and maybe should visit some training activities themselves). The activities should be accompanied and supported by the Ministry of Education, but also by international organisations like ILO or GIZ.

5. Finding Skill Professionals for your Work

The fifth group came along with the idea of creating and shaping a general approach combining best-practice examples from Europe. The discussion showed that the country is facing similar challenges as observed in different regions in Europe. Thus the following objectives were identified:

−     The main key has been seen in an improved cooperation between the EC, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection, NGO and Trade Unions. The cooperation should be oriented towards examples from European Countries with similar challenges. Moreover, the cooperation should not be pushed, but be based on voluntary activities.

−     The measures of counselling activities should also be based on best-practice examples. Ideally some of these examples could be transferred to Azerbaijan or could be adjusted to the present requirements.

In general the group pondered that this idea could be hampered by the question of how to fund these activities. As a result, the WLA-idea should be supported by the GDP/ by taxes.

3.3 Selected Results of Evaluation

The training was evaluated by the participants with the aid of a questionnaire containing items regarding the training content, the approach of the training and the framework conditions (setting, organisation etc.). This paper is focussing on the results of the questions related to the work-process orientation of the training and the quality of the learning contents/curriculum.

The first considered question related to the action-oriented approach and the implementation of WLA concepts and is shown in Figure 3. The results reveal the success and the highly rated acceptance of the connection between the training and the (work) experience of the participants. In total 92% of the answers (22 out of 24 persons) are rating the training within the positive part of the scale, while the remaining two persons chose an average value. The positive results for this item are indicating a highly matched correlation between the WLA idea of taking the (work) experience of the participants into account as well as the participants’ awareness of the how far real work experiences were part of the training, the discussions and the exchange of knowledge.

Figure 4:      Relation of the training to the experience of the participants

A similar evaluation item is shown in Figure 4. In this case it was a question about the general satisfaction of the participants with the content of the training. The results are showing a very high approval while all answers are located on the two positive scale values.

Figure 5:      Evaluation of the training topics in general

Overall the training content has obviously matched the expectations in a very good way, as it is also recognizable in Figure 5, showing the answers to the corresponding question. In total, 71% (17 of 24 persons who answered this item) have agreed to both positive scale values, while 29% (7 persons) rated at least an “acceptable” matching. Thus no participant of the training was disappointed or missed some content. This is underpinned by the fact that the negative categories have not been chosen.

Figure 6:      Matching of training expectations with individual needs

4 Reflection and Outlook

4.1 Reflection of the Process of Curriculum Development

The presented example shows how the curriculum for a ”Job Guidance and Career Counselling“ training course in Azerbaijan was conducted. There was a method mix, combining central elements of the vocational scientific research approach (document analysis, expert interviews) with a need-based questionnaire distributed to the participants prior to the final development of the curriculum. Moreover it was taken into account to integrate an action-oriented procedure (part of) the training. From the didactical perspective it was the approach to integrate WLA in order to use work-process orientation for the improvement of the learning outcome. Finally, the following aspects could be identified (based on the evaluation and the feedback of the participants) as success factors:

–          Needs orientation (research and questioning the participants): The document analysis as well as questioning the needs of the participants were acknowledged as very positive elements in the final evaluation results. This aspect is not very surprising, but especially by using the document analysis as a stand-alone method it might occur that the results of the development process of a curriculum miss central requirements and needs regarding the participants of the training. The expert group interview with skilled workers and central players on the meso-level of the education policy proved the approach and combined the scientific oriented way of curriculum development with a more pragmatic but nonetheless target-oriented procedure.

–          Work-process orientation: The alignment towards real work-processes from the vocational (counselling) context of the participants was supported and considered in different ways: There were the implementation of the didactical concept of WLA, the training of counselling and communication methods in pairs/groups and the discussion of the transfer of best practices (from Germany to Azerbaijan). Those principles and methods made it easier to rely on real work situations and to increase the probability of using methods and examples later on at the individual workplace. “Real” work-processes could not be fully integrated during the training. However, a noticeable reference was possible due to the examples given and the expertise of the counselling trainer from Dortmund as well as during the group work activities. Finally the participants acknowledged and extolled the didactical setting in general.

4.2 Outlook: Effect of the Training and Curriculum on Further Activities

The following activities are intended as follow-up activities in order to continue with the achievements of the training so far and in order to pursue the objective of improving the job guidance and career counselling in cooperation with all stakeholders:

–          Implementation of an inter-institutional Working Group

The participants are altogether experts in the context of JG & CC, but all with a different institutional background and with different objectives/tasks. This aspect did open the eyes of the participants, because they learned about the different points of view by working together in group activities. At the same time the participants became aware of the fact that that only common efforts will result in a sustainable development and improvement of the system in Azerbaijan. As the participants are not the final decision-makers, the idea emerged to establish an Expert Group as a kind of a steering group. This group should meet regularly and together they could develop recommendations for the Ministries or create ideas for new projects.

–          Evaluation of the ideas for WLA regarding possibilities of realisation and transfer

A small group of experts (one each from MoE, MoLSS, GIZ, TVET School, EC, VET Agency) should discuss and evaluate the ideas generated within the WLA together. Each of these five ideas should be considered in reference to a) its impact, b) the financial resources needed and c) the possibility of realisation or rather the integration into the existing system. It should be the objective to pick out the idea with the best evaluation and make a plan for its realisation if this idea is appropriate for the current educational and political action plans in Azerbaijan.

–          Developing a standardized profile for counselling activities

The requirements for the competences of counsellors may differ with regard to their institutional background and their target groups, but some expectations have to be fulfilled in every counselling situation. Therefore a competence profile should be formulated as a mandatory standard for every counsellor. A profile would be the basis for a comparable, high quality standard in counselling situations in every region and situation. This profile should therefore be a kind of curriculum for interdepending training activities that have to be done by every counsellor and that have to be documented and certified by a central institution, e.g. the Ministry of Education. In Germany, there are eight central “attitudes” that are guiding any counselling activity and that are mandatory for everyone. Based on the first ideas provided by the participants of the training, a counselling profile should be detailed within one year and should be combined with training offers.

–          Synchronisation of activities

Compared to Germany, the participants saw a lack of working together. All the stakeholders working in the context of JG and CC are having good ideas and are successful in their activities in different ways. However, in many situations there could be a better matching of activities, a more useful coordination and cooperation between schools, companies, Employment Centres and VET Agencies. Especially the rural activities could be more effective if they were coordinated by one local institution that knows a) the requirements in the region and b) the needs and strengths of the local stakeholders/partners. But also from an overall point of view a better coordination could set standards and obligatory methods/measures for the whole country and have a positive medium-term effect.

–          Establishment of TVET research as a scientific discipline

In differentiation from educational research, TVET research is focussing on the content and objectives of occupational education (cf. Rauner 2005) and therefore has to be established as an academic scientific discipline in order to appropriately meet the manifold and interdisciplinary requirements. Besides the content- and development-related tasks on different levels of education, economic and labour market policy the priority and vision of (further) development of research methods is necessary in order to be successful with the “decoding of the knowledge and expertise incorporated in practical daily work as well as with the examination and evaluation of occupational competences” (Rauner 2005, 11). This aspects can be seen as the basics for a work-process oriented curriculum development. The presented example shows one possible way and moreover includes the starting point for further vocational educational science activities in TVET – at least in Azerbaijan and for the area of vocational orientation and career guidance.

–          WLA: Status quo and research desiderata

The idea of focusing on one’s own work-processes has proved to be a highly motivating aspect for the process of mind mapping ideas for further improvements and for visions and goals for the future. The challenge for shaping a curriculum lies within the long-lasting time period of using scientific methods prior to starting to develop the learning content and at the same time trying to be an objective researcher. Moreover participation and empathy during the development process are the basics needed besides methodological competencies. Finally, there still is a need of thinking about a related work-process oriented didactical approach that is supporting the development of a curriculum.

Thereby the current issue for vocational education and research lies within the theoretical foundation as well as the promotion of the didactical fields of application for WLA. A strong foundation can be found in the illustrated model (cf. Figure 1) showing the connections between a real work task, a process- and action-oriented realization and possibilities of didactical starting points for (occupational) learning inputs.

References

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Citation

Schulte, S. (2018). Work- and learning tasks as a central element of a work process orientated curriculum. In: TVET@Asia, issue 11, 1-22. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue11/schulte_tvet11.pdf (retrieved 15.7.2018).

The world-wide socio-economic processes of change such as globalisation, the information age and the changing environmental conditions have a considerable impact on our societies in terms of the design and organisation of the world of work, and also on vocational education. Alternative ways of re-thinking and new structures are imperative for vocational education to prepare the individual for meeting the challenges of changed requirements and for a long professional life with permanent changes (cf. Spöttl 2008; cf. Höpfner & Koch 2003; cf. Songthanapitak & Schröder 2012, cf. OECD 2013).

In this sense new qualifications, competence and occupational profiles will have to be continuously developed and the curricula need to be adapted accordingly. These reflections are centred around a constant development of the occupational profiles on the level of skilled workers and technicians and the related corporate and societal demands and expectations (cf. Spöttl 2009; cf. Spöttl & Becker 2008). Representatives of the GTW (Gewerblich-Technische-Wissenschaften) community in Germany and the Institut Technik & Bildung (ITB) of the University of Bremen are conducting research in this complex subject area at the interface of work, technology and education. The research discipline resulting thereof it is referred to as vocational educational scientific research (cf. Becker & Spöttl 2008).

The discipline is developing into an independent research discipline within vocational education supported by adequately qualified vocational educational researchers. They are a crucial prerequisite for research and the systematic further development of this special academic discipline. Another must is the training of scientific junior staff. This is not guaranteed everywhere (cf. Lipsmeier 2010). Independent research focused on vocational education also aims at improving teacher training and the further development, the adaptation and a continuous improvement of vocational educational systems. Above all in vocational education it cannot be taken for granted that universities are conducting research along with their teaching activities. However, universities can best comply with their societal education mandate if they generate knowledge through research which – in turn – enhances teaching and is suitable for the further development of the vocational educational systems. 

Apart from the socio-economic and societal aspects, also cultural and ecological issues are playing a role in vocational educational scientific research. Other factors are technology, business and work processes and the occupation itself. The research and development activities encompass corporate learning and vocational initial and further training, vocational learning and learning at school in vocational contexts, pre-vocational education and the interface between vocational and academic education. Vocational educational scientific research covers a total of seven important areas and even investigates the boundary areas that also affect vocational education and training.

With regard to a medium-term development of research capacities and the establishment of a scientific discipline, further research accesses have to be opened and integrated into teaching. This article describes the example of vocational educational sciences. First of all the most relevant research areas will be identified.

1.1 Design (shaping) of work and technology

In the sense of a cross-sectional field, technology will be investigated as the object of the work and information system in the world of work, as machine and medium of vocational learning and as a means for learning processes. This results in questions on the modes of development and the application of technologies as well as on their socio-cultural and legal contexts. Consequences for learning and teaching and the didactic design of vocational learning will be more closely investigated in this context and conclusions for the shaping of learning will be drawn.

1.2 Work and qualifications

Vocational educational scientific qualifications research is dealing with work processes and the interactions within the educational and the employment system. The researchers take a closer look at the vocational pedagogic realization of education and training as well as at the work processes and systems, the structures of initial vocational education and the education sector in general and at various areas of employment. Information deficits and undesirable developments will also be observed and – based on the findings – proposals will be developed to overcome them.

1.3 Learning and teaching in vocational education

The specific environmental conditions at school and in the training companies exert influence on the acquisition of professional skills, social and self-competences. One learning environment imparts these competences with a focus on learning while the other concentrates on practical application. However, the effectiveness is strongly dependent on the learners. Vocational educational scientific research investigates whether and how individual environment-related and multidimensional acting contributes to the development of competences.

1.4 School development and teaching quality

Up to the beginning of the 1990s, reforms carried out in numerous countries concentrated only on classroom teaching (micro-level). Later reforms also included school organisation (meso-level). At least since the beginning of this century, when the need for a multi-level intervention was recognised, vocational educational scientific research approaches have embraced the entire (vocational) school system (macro-level). An important research object is represented by the so-called influencing variables for the development of school and teaching quality.

1.5 Work and technology as object of pre-vocational education

Vocational training is preceded by the phase of general education. It is as important as initial vocational training itself and marks the first step into the labor market. Both the teaching and learning research and vocational educational scientific research perceive the development of vocational competences as a continuous process and calls it an achieved “state”, which is based on its prerequisites and is in turn itself a prerequisite. It is therefore obvious that pre-vocational education with its references to the world of work and its occupational references have to be investigated more closely.

1.6 Occupations and vocational education systems

Occupational profiles, occupational families, vocational and learning fields as well as curricula in the vocational education processes have to be constantly redesigned. With a view on the global world of work, vocational educational scientific research deals with structural framework conditions, competence profiles and societal recognition. The vocational education systems – from school up to initial vocational education and further education – are also in the focus of interest.

1.7 Teacher training

The education and further training of instructors and trainers in companies as well as the teaching staff in vocational schools is playing a key role in any perception of vocational education. This is why vocational educational scientific research has developed a concept for the training of teachers for vocational schools and colleges based on a scientific perspective. This approach still requires further research and proposals of concepts that may be acceptable in a global context (cf. Hattie 2012).

The chapter below will briefly describe the historical development of teacher training for vocational schools in Germany – with vocational educational science as its preliminary result.

2 Historical development of vocational sciences

After various development phases (“reduced engineering science”, “teaching- oriented scientific discipline” and “work-oriented vocational science”), work process knowledge and the implications of a highly complex world of work as well as the resulting consequences for vocational education and teacher training form the centre of multi-faceted surveys of educational and work-process oriented vocational educational scientific research. It is assumed that the connection between vocational education, vocational qualification and the individual subjective interests of the skilled workers and company owners as well as societal interests from a company perspective could considerably contribute to the clarification of various issues such as the shaping of curricula, the design of vocational learning and occupations, occupational fields and vocational educational and qualification processes. A great number of research works, published above all in the 1990s, underpinned the necessity to concentrate vocational educational scientific research on work processes and their implications. (cf. Drescher 1996; Niethammer 1995; Fischer 2000; Schlausch 1997; Bannwitz & Rauner 1993; Spöttl 2000; Rauner & Spöttl 2002) This development is based on Stratmann’s (1975) postulations to make work, technology and education and their interactions the research object of vocational educational scientific research. First and foremost he considers this an option to overcome the manifold attempts by GTW (with vocational sciences as their umbrella) and to shape study courses for teachers at vocational schools from the fields of engineering sciences, work sciences, natural and social sciences as well as vocational pedagogics. By concentrating their research on this context, vocational educational scientists hope to identify acceptable scientific structures and to contribute to a process of theory construction which helps to form an independent profile of the discipline – and thus also of the training of teachers for vocational schools – at universities. This could also intensify vocational educational research. The great number of reference sciences nevertheless causes a problem. The required deeper reflection of these disciplines cannot be realized in the short term. Consequently the training of teachers for these areas will continue to show deficits.  However, if we assume that a vocational educational scientific study course will yield vocational pedagogues (teachers at vocational schools) with the ability to shape vocational educational processes and qualifying work processes, four specializations for GTW (today called vocational educational sciences, GS) can be identified (cf. Martin, Pangalos & Rauner 2000, 22):

• Development of professional skilled work and the occupational fields;
• Learning contents of vocational education as a dimension of analysis, design and evaluation of vocational educational and qualification processes;
• Analysis, design and evaluation of professional skilled work in terms of learning contents and learning opportunities;
• Analysis, design and evaluation of technology in terms of preserving and promoting specialist competences.

On the one hand these subject areas sketch the objects of university curricula of vocational educational sciences. On the other hand they outline the contents to be researched with the aid of vocational educational scientific methods and instruments (cf. Becker & Spöttl 2008). In this fourth phase of the development of vocational educational sciences for vocational and technical occupational fields the work and work-process oriented knowledge becomes the object of vocational educational scientific research – also from a subjective point of view (cf. Fischer 2000, cf. Illerins 2003).

The field of objects of vocational educational sciences is the relationship of technology and vocational education within the framework of professionally organised skilled work. The focus of the theme restricts the arbitrariness of the aspect of “technology” without violating the characteristic structure of the field of objects: The vocational acting competence and the specialist theory of a skilled worker required for a competent handling of systemic technology are thus the central issues of the field of objects (cf. Martin, Pangalos & Rauner 2000, 13). This perspective of imparting specialization-relevant contents differs clearly from imparting contents in engineering study courses. Teacher students of vocational technical specializations whose specialist scientific training depends on a reduced offer of engineering study courses are not sufficiently prepared for the mastering and imparting of the professional knowledge of their prospective vocational teaching practice in vocational education and training. Teachers should, however, rather be trained in their vocational specializations and for both practice-oriented and scientific vocational education. This has repeatedly been agreed upon by KMK (cf. KMK 1973, KMK 2007).

3 The importance of vocational educational sciences for the training of vocational teachers

According to the KWM framework agreement, study courses have to be designed in a way that they take account of the swift development in the various occupational fields and to impart future-oriented action competences. (…) The study course encompasses educational sciences with emphasis on vocational or economic education as well as subject didactics for the occupational specialization, scientific disciplines within the vocational specialization as well as a BA and MA thesis (cf. KMK 2007, 2). In order to meet these demands, the training in technical vocational specializations is linked to the general professionalization of teachers. On the other hand it has not yet been clarified which specialist knowledge teachers will require to enable them to scientifically reflect and understand the specialist theory of skilled workers necessary for a competent handling of technology and for creating the basics for professional action situations. This is where research has to set in and it must also develop and discuss standards for teacher training (vgl. Spöttl & Becker 2012).

Nevertheless it is generally difficult to exactly describe the specialist theories that are guiding the actions of skilled workers, to systematize them, to clarify their special importance for the work process and to identify their scientific principles. This problem is mainly due to the considerable dynamics and increasing complexity with regard to corporate organisation development and technological innovations. Even more difficulties arise when it comes to a clarification of the conditions of a systematic acquisition of professional action competence.

4 Requirements for vocational educational sciences as scientific disciplines and their research

The vocational educational scientific approach deals with access to work, work processes, changes in the work and the related implications. The results can be used for conclusions with regard to the need for qualification, qualification and occupational profiles, the design of curricula and consequences for learning processes.

The (occupational) educational scientific approach to qualification research is based on the fact that the perspective of insight into curriculum research and curriculum development and/or curriculum design must aim at the safeguarding of subject development and evolvement. This can, however, not be guaranteed and societally accounted for without the foundation of an empirically secured need assessment of concrete work capacities. Socially necessary working capacities are the result of complex configurations based on technological, economic, legal and social developments (cf. Spöttl & Lewis 2008).

It is likely that the “research on early recognition” of a need for qualification will play a predominant role in the future. There are at least two approaches:

a) Prognosis and prospective vocational educational research (cf. Grollmann 2005, Leney et al. 2004; Schmidt & Steeger 2004; Schmidt 2003).

b) Research approaches with a focus on vocational educational science (Windelband & Spöttl 2003 a+b; Spöttl & Windelband 2003; Spöttl & Windelband 2006).

Prognostic research and research on prospectivity in vocational education began to deal with the future of vocational education in the 1960s. This research aims at providing an empirically verified contribution to the planning of vocational education. There has been a long-standing argument about whether prognostic research is able to yield reliable results for the future along with the necessary openness for the future. The roots of prognostic research encompass at least classical educational planning and educational economy, the assessment of the consequences of technology and economic and social scientific prognosis research as well as industry sociological research and their numerous varieties. Step by step this research approach has been criticized from various sides resulting in a “prospective turning point” based on openness towards the shaping of work and technology and thus “relativising” the approaches to prognosis (cf. Martin & Rauner 1988).

In the course of the analysis, the shaping and the evaluation of work processes it is crucial to adhere to a process-oriented – contrary to a task-oriented – perception of work contexts (cf. Storz 1999, 146). This is where the approach clearly differs from empirical social research. The latter does not aim at identifying results for the creation of occupations and curricula by means of analysis and shaping of the object-related part of work, work results, means of labour and processes (including company and work organisation). Vocational educational scientific research, however, looks at occupational skilled work in a differentiated and non-deterministic way (cf. Storz 1999, 135). A certain proximity of vocational educational scientific research on ordinances as application-oriented research of actions can be noted within the scope of technology and qualification (cf. Sauter 2000). Research on ordinances has the disadvantage that it is reduced to the practical integration into ordinance work. As a result it can – if at all – only have an orienting character. In short: research on ordinances is governed by the purposive rationality of ordinance politics. Vocational educational scientific research is considerably more far-reaching and is not subject to the above mentioned limitations.

The professional requirements for the designers of vocational education encompass the ability to impart contents in a didactical-methodological way. On the other hand, themes should be conscientiously identified and prepared. This requires a sound knowledge of the needs and aims of vocational education in order to be able to design occupational educational processes. This means that professionally organised work within an occupation or an occupational field is the central benchmark for all designers of occupational educational processes. It must be the core of the professional education of vocational pedagogues. This is why this study area must be scientifically shaped for each and every occupational field. The discipline that can achieve this goal is vocational educational science (cf. Pahl 1993, 40). The most important references are “professional work”, “professional knowledge”, “professional theory” and vocational education. In terms of a “professional work”, vocational educational science must investigate the forms of professional work (cf. Rauner 1993, 29) and/or the relationship between man – machine – work place – company and their interrelationships (cf. Illeris 2003).

The current relevance of vocational educational scientific research is based on three principal considerations:

• Firstly: It results from the need for a new quality in shaping occupational profiles and vocational structures as well as finding answers for didactical issues.
• Secondly: It is based on the necessary professionalization of “vocational educational staff” by a university study course of “occupational specialisations”. The design and stabilization of these subjects is essential for vocational educational scientific research.
• Thirdly: It should promote the development of an academic discipline in the sense of occupational specializations under the umbrella of vocational education and training and economic education.

Vocational educational scientific research can provide answers on how the objects of skilled work, the occupational structures and the occupations, the business and work processes and the structures of occupational clusters are changing, as it not only investigates this kind of leading questions but also applies methods of adjacent disciplines. It is, however, important that the answers are generated by adhering to a sound knowledge of the internal structures of professional work (cf. Spöttl 2010a; Becker, Fischer & Spöttl 2010). The inductive character of this research, however, results in the fact that the answers deal with references to the sector level, to the level of occupational clusters and to superordinate contexts regarding the design of occupations, occupational profiles and curricula, also relevant for the education and professionalization of vocational pedagogues (cf. Spöttl 2010). It is beneficial that the considerations and answers can be empirically verified. This is above all true for theoretical references regarding the interrelationship between characteristic work tasks and processes as well as the incorporated qualification requirements. Research must concentrate on the didactical importance of these tasks for the development of competences in professionals in the contexts of their work.

It can of course be argued whether above all ergonomics can make an important contribution as a reference science. This will not be dealt with in this article. Instead we underline the necessity of empirical research in order to clarify the theoretical systematics for reference sciences. An empirical-scientific approach can help to overcome the prevailing deficiencies of vocational educational scientific research. This concern is very important due to the fact that the development of societies and the world of work are nowadays no longer linear but are dominated by many influencing factors. Vocational educational scientific research is suitable to access the complexity of the world of work from a vocational perspective. Wherever the parameters of dynamic work and work objectified within technology can also be accessed in terms of societal and social aspects, not only questions regarding occupations, vocational education, learning fields and curricula can be answered. There will also be findings useful for the theoretical shaping of occupational specializations as reference sciences for the professionalization of vocational pedagogues.

Already in the last century, Stratmann (cf. 1975, 335 ff.), Grüner (1970, 446) and Müllges (cf. 1975, 810 f.) referred to the possibility and the necessity of an empirically oriented vocational educational science. Pahl (2001) names further authors who have spoken out on the state of empirical research in vocational education: Beck and Kell (cf. 1991, 12) remarked, that the future of empirical vocational educational science had not yet begun. In his essay “Erträge und Aufgaben der Berufsbildungsforschung” Achtenhagen critizises that vocational educational scientific research, above all in vocational pedagogy and economic education, is not adequately developed, that there are not enough opportunities to publish the findings and thus cannot call adequate attention to the problems of education (cf. Achtenhagen 1991, 187).

These already older statements accurately sketch today’s situation. At the same time the German Society for Research (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) criticizes the lack of empirical-analytical vocational educational scientific research (cf. DFG 1990, 17). The statements refer to the already discussed problem of reference sciences for the professionalization of vocational pedagogues. On the other hand they emphasize the urgent need for empirical approaches to the research objects and the clarification of knowledge and skills structures in employees. This is also underpinned by a popular perception taken from developmental psychology:  the acquisition of content knowledge is no crucial prerequisite for an occupation. To know how to learn would be sufficient (cf. Gerstenmaier 2004, 154). The recent state of expertise research has, however, clearly shown that the separation of learning from context-related knowledge contents is leading to “inactive knowledge” which can only hardly – if at all – be used for coping with new tasks and problems. According to these findings, the access to area-specific knowledge or domain knowledge is linked to contents and related subjects. Thus it is necessary to clarify how occupational mastership can be achieved and to investigate the role of knowledge structures acquired during an application context and resulting in performance. The works of Franke (2001, 2005), Neuweg (1999), Polanyi (1985) and Ryle (1969) have considerably contributed to a theory-oriented clarification of the relationship of knowledge, abilities and competence which have to be taken into consideration for the further development of research instruments.

5 Summary and outlook

A closer look at the research objects of vocational educational qualification research clearly reveals their interdisciplinary and at the same time their individual character. Qualification research is often assigned to a single discipline. This leads to basic logical scientific problems (cf. Pätzold & Rauner 2006, 15) and to a curtailed reflection of the objects to be researched. The problem has already been mentioned in the 1970s (cf. Grüner 1970, Stratmann 1975) and during the emergence of a vocational educational scientific research tradition (cf. Pahl & Rauner 1998, Pahl 2005, Spöttl 2012). Qualification research that is only based on a single perspective (e.g. on work sociology, education sciences, vocational pedagogy, ordinance politics, labour market orientation or economy/ecology) therefore reveals deficits in its empirical and education-theoretical foundation and above all in its research methods. This can be prevented by applying vocational educational scientific instruments. Therefore vocational educational scientific qualification research always adheres to the following three levels (cf. Spöttl 2000):

• Sector structures and the contents of the work of skilled workers (tasks as well as business and work processes). This dimension concentrates on the relevant situations which determine the conditions for acting.
• Competences of the skilled workers (knowledge and abilities to master and to shape the work processes). This dimension concentrates on the scientific aspect in the sense of knowledge structures for an occupation or a domain (cf. Rauner 2002, 530).
• Conditions and structures for the development of competences/ vocational education (competence development/ learning processes of the individual). This dimension concentrates on personality.

The consequent context orientation practised by vocational educational scientific researchers has often been criticised: their methods would only be applied to investigate the occupational requirements and neglect the educational aspect. However, the opposite is true and was often the trigger for a further development of research-methodological approaches of adjacent research disciplines (cf. Becker 2003, 38ff.).

Nevertheless, a more thorough methodological discussion and a precise theoretical justification as well as more precise research instruments are still lacking. These steps still have to be taken as vocational educational scientific research has so far relied on and applied the methods of other disciplines. The contents and forms of work and educational processes in the different sectors require context-oriented research and development methods which are still in need to be further justified and theoretically underpinned (cf. Becker & Spöttl 2008).

Finally it should be underlined that the vocational educational sciences have already intensively recognized empirical vocational educational scientific research. In addition they are increasingly prepared to support the design of occupational specializations in a more differentiated way. Apart from this they have engaged in the clarification of open questions such as the problem of systematics – to process knowledge for teaching and learning. Specialist systematics is a well-known fact. However, the shape of action systematics which should replace it, remains more or less vague.

The problem of generalizability remains to be clarified as well, i.e. the question must be answered how the situation- and context-related, volatile and unique elements of work process knowledge can be generalized. And the problem of transferability must be solved as well. The ability to solve difficult tasks is based on recourse to available well-structured patterns which contain a number of identical elements necessary for the mastering of a new task. Expertise results from the availability of such patterns. These questions are highly relevant as established action patterns are no longer sufficient due to the vocational educational scientific reflection of the object in research and teaching.

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Citation

Schröder, T., Schulte, S., & Spöttl, G. (2013). Vocational educational science. In: TVET@Asia, issue 2, 1-14. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue2/schroeder_etal_tvet2.pdf (retrieved 30.12.2013).

TVET in Poland has a long tradition and distinctive features set in Polish geographic, economic and social context. Even though there is no unique and specific TVET low in Poland like for example the Vocational Training Act in Germany, numerous educational reforms conducted in Poland have been instrumental to shaping the contemporary form of this type of education. The last educational reform from 2017 introduced changes that profoundly influenced the structure of TVET in Poland.

Amidst these momentous changes the research team from TU Dortmund and the education provider VESBE e.V. started an “Explanatory Study on the TVET in Poland” as a research project with a multi-method-approach. Embedded in the context of international Technical Vocational Education and Research, the main objective is to have a closer look at both TVET Systems in Poland and Germany. In more detail, and by using a comparative approach, the project aims to identify central elements of dual learning approaches with regard to transfer options on different levels of the TVET Systems (focusing on companies located in Poland as well as in Germany).

This article presents the theoretical frame, the applied methodology, preliminary findings as well as crucial challenges of the project. It is a contribution to the academic discussion on Polish TVET at the secondary level that not rarely has been overshadowed in the Polish scholarly tradition by voices focused primarily on technical education at the university level.

Keywords: International TVET Research, Transfer of Dual System-Elements, Cooperation of Learning Environments, Poland

1        Introduction

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Poland has its own long history, distinct structures and vivid dynamics, which has been reflected on numerous occasions in subsequent educational reforms that took place in Poland after 1989. It has been reshaped over the course of history, depending on the sociopolitical, demographic and technological grounds. The most recent educational reform from 2017 introduced, to some extent, new frames of the Polish TVET and provided the research ground for the study described in this article.

The undoubtedly challenging, yet promising aim of this study is to explore the Polish TVET system from a possibly wide perspective. On the other hand, the objective of the authors of this paper is to present its results in a detailed way, so that it is feasible to articulate definite and case-bound suggestions for Polish TVET system that may have a positive and long-lasting influence on its development.

The study has been based on the research tools described in Chapter 3, which consist of structured interviews, as well as surveys designed for teachers and students. Moreover, in some cases additional interviews have been carried out with business and state administration representatives. Since the aim of this study is to obtain a broad picture of the Polish TVET landscape, a wide spectrum of stakeholders has been invited to share their opinions, approaches, represent their achievements, as well as ideas for the further development of Polish TVET.

The aim of this article is to present the preliminary results of the Explanatory Study on the TVET in Poland. While this introduction outlines the main information regarding this research project, Chapter 2 includes project description and its main goals, as well as it describes the selected industries and the main stakeholders who participated in the project. Chapter 3 presents the research design and the research methodology in detail, while Chapter 4 is focused on a particular test sample of the described research. The preliminary findings of the research have been highlighted in Chapter 5, while significant challenges and experiences have been mentioned in Chapter 6.

TVET in Poland has been the subject of numerous academic publications since several decades. Nevertheless, the vast majority of scientific literature is primarily devoted to the technical education at the university level, with dominant part of it being published in journals of various Polish technical universities (Pol. Politechnika). Nevertheless, some early publications related to TVET can be traced back to the first half of the 20^th century, such as Informacje o Rocznych Ślusarsko-Monterskich kursach mechaników lotniczych Towarzystwa Wojskowo-Technicznego by Towarzystwo Wojskowo-Techniczne from 1939 devoted to 1 year long courses for welders and fitters. Nevertheless, the main development of academic publications focused on TVET at the secondary level of education took place at the turn of the 20^th and 21^st centuries. Right after the collapse of the communist system in Poland the place of TVET for secondary level students in the educational system was discussed in the publication Edukacja zawodowa młodzieży szkół średnich w systemie stacjonarnego kształcenia wyższego by R. Parzęcki in 1991. The conundrum of technical education, which is the relation between TVET and job market, has been the subject of the book Edukacja zawodowa a rynek pracy edited by S. Borkowska in 1999. Social and economic changes in relation to TVET constitute the main topic of the publication Edukacja zawodowa w aspekcie przemian społeczno-gospodarczych: wyzwania, szanse, zagrożenia from 2007, edited by R. Gerlach, while a valuable contribution to the discussion on TVET in Poland is a publication devoted to the participation of persons with disabilities in this sector of education Edukacja i aktywizacja zawodowa osób z niepełnosprawnościami from 2011, edited by M. Franczak. A contemporary context of TVET education is offered in the work Edukacja zawodowa – wybrane problemy i konteksty edited by K. Sadowska and T. Sadowski = from 2014. The newest publications focused on TVET in Poland have been highlighted in Chapter 2: Project description and its main goals.

The analysis of these first findings allows the identification of the following challenges. First of all, the dual TVET system in Poland is not understood in the same way as it is commonly interpreted in Germany. The terminology related to this sector of education also differs from the terminology applied in the German model, which requires an extra sensitivity on the part of the research team from TU Dortmund. Secondly, the exploratory study started amidst an educational reform. On the one hand, these circumstances offer a unique chance to see how the system is being reshaped and what the reaction of main stakeholders is towards these changes. On the other hand, it might also mean for the final results of this exploratory study that in a long run perspective, some aspects of the Polish TVET system might change meanwhile and adjust to the changes implemented in the 2017 reform. Thirdly, the multilingualism of the project has its disadvantages and its blessings. The stakeholders and respondents shared their views in their native, i.e. Polish language, which ensured the highest degree of clarity and understandability. On the other hand, the results of interviews had to be interpreted into German and then transcribed from audio recordings into paper. English is taught as a compulsory foreign language in the Polish education system and many of the stakeholders speak it on various levels of proficiency, yet it was not spoken by all interview partners and therefore, in order to ensure the highest quality of the study results, it was used only in few cases as a leading language of the interview.

2        Project Description and its Main Goals

The main goal of this study is to formulate suggestions for the further development and quality improvement of the TVET system within the general educational strategy in Poland. Secondly, the expected result is to identify and match the needs of the Polish and German companies operating in Poland with the current shape of the Polish TVET system. Moreover, this study aims at analyzing needs-oriented qualifications solutions within the TVET system in Poland based on the work-related dimension.

In order to grasp the features of the Polish TVET system and identify the perspectives for the implementation of development perspectives, the Explanatory Study on the TVET in Poland (“Sondierungsstudie zur Beruflichen Bildung in Polen”, SBBP) started in September 2018 and will be completed in February 2020. This project has been jointly designed and implemented by the team of researchers from the Institute of General Educational Sciences and Vocational Pedagogy TU Dortmund and Association for European Social Work, Education and Training (VESBE e.V.).

The academic team from the TU Dortmund is responsible for carrying out the explanatory study, evaluation and report creation based on the collected data, as well as publication of the research results. The TU Dortmund academic team will strive for achieving the following goals:

1. Analyze the needs of TVET in Poland (vocational training, as well further education in Poland and Germany)
2. Formulate the suggestions for introducing selected elements of dual training for vocational schools and companies
3. Develop suggestions on how to implement changes in the future on the policy-level (cooperation on the ministerial level), while taking into consideration additional projects.

The project coordination belongs to the scope of responsibilities of the Association for European Social Work, Education and Training (VESBE e.V.). The role of VESBE in the project encompasses: project coordination, administration and general leadership. After the research data will be fully collected, evaluated and published by the academic team from the TU Dortmund, VESBE e.V. will prepare the scenarios for the transfer of data results for their potential future implementation, as well as organize and carry out workshops and events related to the project.

Furthermore, for the success of the explanatory study have been carrying also the local service providers. An essential part has been played by the Polish-German Chamber of Commerce and Industry that has made it possible for the project partners to access a wide range of TVET stakeholders in Poland, meet them in person, travel to various parts of Poland and see the multi-facetted landscape of Polish TVET.

The dynamic and comprehensive character of SBBP lies in the fact that the project team carried out research in different regions of Poland, recorded over 70 hours of interviews with the relevant stakeholders, collected over 300 questionnaires from the students and talked to around 50 interview partners over a relatively short period of time in December 2018, March 2019, April 2019 and Mai 2019. The next step in the project development was the organization of the validation workshop on the 17^th and 18^th of September, where the stakeholders have been invited to share their knowledge, experiences and the opinions on the current state and the future of the Polish TVET.

From the point of view of the authors of this article, the essential role of SBBP is that it might stir innovation among the stakeholders of the TVET system in Poland. In the 21^st century there have not been many comprehensive studies published in Poland, which would be devoted to this topic. However, those most prominent include Współpraca firm z sektorem edukacji. Raport z badania by A. Emerling, A. Orlińska and S. Węsierska from 2010, Edukacja w Polsce – konieczność reformy i nowe wyzwania by M. Szyszka from 2010, Badanie funkcjonowania systemu kształcenia zawodowego w Polsce. Raport końcowy by the Polish Ministry of National Education from 2011, System edukacji wobec wyzwań rynku pracy w Polsce by J. Stasiak from 2011, as well as Die Berufsbildung in Polen. In der Perspektive des Wandels und der Anforderungen der Wirtschaft by M. Mazik-Gorzelańczyk (Friedrich Ebert Foundation) from 2016.

The focal points of the SBBP are two industrial sectors: automotive industry and logistics. The choice of these sectors was based on the following reasons. First of all, there are many technical and vocational schools in Poland where students can obtain professional qualifications within these fields. Secondly, Poland enjoys a good reputation as a country in which such companies as Opel, MAN and Volkswagen decided to establish their branches and hire Polish employees. Thirdly, the location of Poland of the map of Europe makes it an important player in the field of logistics.

Apart from the choice of industries, the authors of this article decided to highlight the following aspects of TVET in Poland: digitalization and elements of dual training as well as gender balance and improving the image of TVET in Poland. Digitalization of production processes changes the learning and teaching processes at schools, which is why this topic has been given prominence in the study. Moreover, the notion of dual training, its terminology, organization and functionality have also been brought to discussion in order to compare the Polish TVET system with other TVET systems, as well as to promote some ideas related to the transfer of elements of dual training. Furthermore, there is an increasing number of women interested in the TVET in Poland and this trend is worth analyzing in this study, as well as enhancing in the future. Last but not least, the image of TVET in Poland certainly needs brushing up and the ideas of how to do that have also been collected, analyzed and formulated.

A platform for exchange the ideas of TVET stakeholders in Poland was prepared and implemented by the SBBP project team members during the validation workshops that took place on the 17^th and 18^th of September 2019 in Warsaw. During these meetings, employees of regionally active companies had the opportunity to discuss essential matters of TVET with vocational school teachers and other stakeholders in such a global work frame as a validation workshop. Even though it is not the designed goal of this project, it is apparently and already an important achievement of the described study that the TVET stakeholders in Poland might have realized the great interest in all groups of engaged Polish TVET partners to cooperate and enhance the quality and efficiency of this sector of education.

3        Research Design

In the following chapter, the targeted products as well as the methodological approach of the research activities are described. In particular, the temporal dimension of the project and the development of the survey instruments, which were designed and applied in a multi-methodological approach, will be detailed.

3.1     Objectives and Products

The project’s main interest consists of the identification of implementing perspectives for central elements of dual vocational training in Poland. From the perspective of the project partners, the project can be regarded as successful if the research results serve to derive and formulate recommendations for action, which at the same time could be a starting point for following development and implementation projects at various levels, which are generally aimed at optimizing TVET in Poland and Germany. Furthermore, the results aim to serve the further development of the German vocational education and training system under consideration of Polish models and concepts of training.

The following research objectives are derived from the following assumption: (1) to analyze the development potential of TVET in Poland at the micro, meso and macro levels; (2) to identify those aspects of the dual system in Germany that are suitable for transfer activities to Polish TVET; (3) to survey the specific TVET needs of selected economic sectors in Poland.

The work phases of the project realization are designed accordingly to the research objectives. The organizational preparation of the study is followed by an analysis with three focal points. Firstly, the analysis focuses on the framework, objectives and the current situation of the labor market, the economy and the education sector with special consideration of dual approaches for vocational training in Poland. Here, current development trends are tapped and strengths and weaknesses of vocational training in Poland are examined. Secondly, the analysis of the qualification needs of companies in Poland for selected vocational fields, including those with high growth potential (cf. European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training 2015) with the resulting demand for skilled workers in the corresponding companies. Thirdly, the analysis of the objectives and attitudes of the social partners in Poland, based on the identified priority sectors.

The analysis is followed by triangulation and validation of the results in order to gain insights into the requirements and developmental potential of the Polish vocational training system with a view to strengthening dual vocational training. At the same time, it will be discussed which elements and principles of the Polish system could form the basis for bilateral cooperation and transfer studies in vocational education and training.

3.2     Methodological Approach and Data collection

The intended findings are to be obtained through an empirical approach. According to the principle of a multi-method approach (cf. Creswell, J. W. & Plano Clark, V. L. 2011), qualitative and quantitative methods are combined and their separate results triangulated in order to gain as broad an insight as possible into the object of investigation. Open explorative interviews and guideline-based interviews are used as qualitative instruments. Questionnaires with predominantly closed item formats are used as quantitative instruments. The results are presented as theses and validated by experts and study participants in a workshop format.

The qualitative surveys are carried out as part of several study trips to Warsaw and Poznan, as well as Silesian, Podlaskie, Podkarpackie and Świętokrzystkie Voivodeships. The guided interviews have been conducted by two research assistants and the representative of VESBE e.V., accompanied by an interpreter. The interview partners usually have been visited and interviewed at their places of work or learning. The guidelines themselves are understood as flexible instruments and, depending on the knowledge gained, supplemented by questions that appear supportive to collect more details.

As a quantitative instrument, questionnaires are submitted to trainees. The questionnaires to trainees are sent in paper form by Polish contractors to the institutions ready to participate in the survey. The processing by the addressed pupils and trainees, mostly in class, is the responsibility of these institutions.

The validation workshops served to discuss preliminary results and follow on from the survey phase. They represent the final methodological step to ensure the quality of the study results before the findings and recommendations will be derived and published.

Figure 1: Timeline and activities of the research process

3.3     Design and Evaluation Methodology of the survey instruments

In the research process, various quantitative and qualitative instruments and methods are used in the different phases, which seemed appropriate to the above-mentioned objectives of the phases.

The qualitative document analysis (Doering & Bortz 2016, 540; Mayring 2010) begins with the collection and evaluation of current publications, studies and other documents in order to gain an overview of the design and characteristics of the Polish TVET system and in particular of its design premises and the actors and conditions that define them. On the one hand, research questions are to be concretized from this, which serves to derive guiding questions for the construction of the interview guideline. On the other hand, possible interview partners are to be identified. Current and intended developments are to be compiled in particular from education policy strategy and position papers.

The explorative interviews took place as open conversations, which are not oriented towards guiding questions, but either serve an explorative, general documentation of knowledge or are oriented towards special topics which a corresponding interlocutor prefers in reference to his function or expertise. Discussions are being hold along the entire spectrum of central actors from business, politics, education and the social sector. Similar to the objective of document analysis, the aim was to gain insights into the design of the interview guidelines and other relevant actors.

The guideline interviews (Döring & Bortz 2016; Gläser & Laudel 2004) serve qualitative-empirical data acquisition as a basis for in-depth analysis of the research questions and hypotheses raised after document analysis and explorative interviews. The guiding questions were constructed along the objectives formulated in the project outline and, if necessary, after the explorative interviews or in the course of the survey with the guideline interviews, updated and supplemented. The guiding questions were also categorized in order to support a discussion that equally addressed all research questions. The categories are:

1. Development and quality improvement of Polish TVET at system level, where questions on education policy, education system and education infrastructure were located, but also questions on the social conditions in TVET are embedded.
2. Analysis of the qualification needs from the point of view of the employer/employer- or employee representatives/politics; in this case the question was asked which content of the vocational training offer has to be changed in order to be better adapted to the requirements of the labor market.
3. Transfer recommendations; questions were placed here with the aim of identifying possibilities for implementing the findings in interventions in the Polish or German TVET systems.
4. Cross-section; this category covers questions concerning the social conditions in and around the Polish TVET system as well as questions concerning the general assessment of the state of vocational education and training by the interview partners.

The final version of the interview guide comprises 25 questions, with category (1) being assigned seven questions, category (2) four questions, category (3) two questions and category (4) ten questions. Two further questions were assigned to both categories (1) and (2).

In order to quantitatively confirm the hypotheses and in order to deepen the knowledge gained from the qualitative research elements, a questionnaire was designed for vocational school students. The design was based on nominal multiple-choice, open-response and a combination of both formats as well as ordinal licker scales. With a total of 134 items (5 open responses, 7 multiple-choice, 4 combinations and 118 licker scales), the questionnaire addressed the areas of sociodemographic context, infrastructural learning and training conditions, methodological and didactic training design, school learning climate, in-company learning climate and educational affirmation. The collected data will be analyzed due to a frequency analysis and, where possible, a reliability analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis focused on the areas of investigation described above.

In the final step of the research process, the findings gained by evaluating the survey results have been the subject of a validation workshop. In terms of the fundamental quality criteria of empirical social research, this served to verify the validity of the findings derived from the survey data. The preliminary findings were presented to a panel of experts in the form of statements and the answers and group discussions were summarized to determine whether a specific finding can be assumed to be valid or not. The validation workshop was open-ended, i.e. whether the evaluation of the validity of individual or all findings is positive or negative is irrelevant for the evaluation of the achievement of its objectives. Such findings found to be invalid by the panel of experts are either to be corrected where reasonably possible, discarded or made controversial in the report.

4        Sample

In the course of the qualitative survey, 10 explorative interviews, corresponding to 618 minutes, and 40 guideline interviews, corresponding to 1539 minutes, were recorded. Out of these, 8 explorative interviews, corresponding to 545 minutes, and 28 guideline interviews, corresponding to 1202 minutes, were transcribed. The assignment of the recorded interviews to the functional systems results in 38 interviews for the field of education, corresponding to 1445 minutes, 10 for the field of economics, corresponding to 649 minutes, and 1 each for the field of politics, corresponding to 61 minutes, and social affairs, corresponding to 56 minutes. In the field of education, mainly teachers, school principals and company trainers were interviewed, in the field of economics, for example, representatives of the common group of interests of the automotive industry as well as managing directors and personnel managers, in the field of politics, a conversation was hold with the representatives of the Education Department of the City of Warsaw, and in the field of social affairs, a member of the Polish teachers’ trade union with the largest number of members (Polish Teachers’ Union) was interviewed.

However, the significance of these recording frequencies and lengths is limited for two reasons. Firstly, not all explorative interviews were recorded; for example, discussions with the representatives of Polish ministries were not recorded early in the survey phase, but the supportive comments were noted. Secondly, the number of participants in individual interviews varies greatly. As a rule, guideline interviews with teachers were usually conducted with only one interviewee, whereas conversations with representatives of employers’ associations, for example, took place with up to eight interviewees at the same time.

In order to illustrate the quantitative aspect of the research project, the questionnaires that have been described above were sent to schools and training centres, who then handed them over to the addressees. Altogether 206 questionnaires were used for the analysis.

5        First findings

An evaluation of the interviewers’ notes prior to the detailed analysis of the transcripts indicates various central results.

The reform of the Polish education system initiated in 2017, which is currently in its finalization phase, is perceived differently by various surveyed actors and stakeholders. The majority of those questioned stated more or less clearly their concern about central aspects of the current situation. Despite the purpose of the latest reform, it seems to have nearly no significant effect so far. At the same time, positive developments, such as an increasing implementation of internships, have been mentioned.

Polish and Polish-based companies are increasingly willing to participate in vocational training. This is done on the one hand through participation in training, e.g. by creating internships or sponsoring patronage classes. On the other hand, business interest groups are trying to become more involved in the organization and design of training, for example by initiating new job profiles or curricula. This involvement tends to be limited to large and financially strong companies; small and medium-sized enterprises are currently deterred from participating in training by three factors: firstly, the unclear legal situation under which such participation takes place; secondly, time and effort consuming character of such participation; and thirdly, the concern that the fully trained junior staff might choose another employer after the training.

While summarizing the interview results, both the profession of being a (vocational) school teacher and vocational training in general do not seem to enjoy the same standing in comparison to e.g. engineers, skilled workers or academic occupations. For teachers, this is reflected above all in the employment situation in contrast to German teachers and employees in the private sector, both in terms of remuneration and job security. Vocational education and training, on the other hand, tends to be regarded as less attractive than comprehensive secondary education and as an intermediate step towards a subsequent course of study, to which trainees are often strongly encouraged by their parents.

With regard to the material and personnel resources of the public vocational training institutions, there are strong discrepancies between urban regions, above all Warsaw, and more rural regions, especially in eastern Poland. This is expressed essentially in the fact that in urban areas vocational schools with higher-quality training courses can respond to the needs of the regional labor market than is possible for poorly financed schools in rural areas, which often have insufficient resources to offer only those training courses for which teachers are available, without being able to take the requirements of the labor market into account.

The equipment situation needs to be improved and it is combined with a lack of institutionalized communication and coordination between schools, authorities and enterprises in economically weaker regions. These factors result in an insufficient strategic orientation of vocational schools at the regional level, the offers of which are perceived as unattractive for both pupils and companies.

6        Challenges and lessons learned

The surveys carried out in Poland within the framework of the study led not only to findings directly related to the objectives of the study and the research questions, but also to the insights that can be understood as generally valid empirical values on the one hand and country-specific challenges on the other hand.

In general, it has proved useful to conduct the interviews consistently in the native language of the interviewees, using an interpreter. Knowledge of English and German is widespread and it has been shown that both languages could often have been used by Polish native speakers. However, the use of foreign languages was avoided in order to allow a fluent flow of speech and to prevent the loss or misleading articulation of the interviewees’ thoughts.

The interpretation of the collected data poses a challenging task, since it is carried out during an advanced and not yet completed reform of the Polish education system. Two assumptions can be pointed out: on the one hand, interesting insights can be gained into this reform process, which in particular can be inferred from dynamics of all kinds in the Polish vocational training system and environment. On the other hand, there is a risk that the results of the study will only provide a selective glimpse into the education system which might change further after the end of the study and for which the consequences of precisely this change are far from foreseeable. Under this second assumption, the representativeness of at least some of the central results of the study could only be assumed to be particularly limited.

In order to understand the object of the study between the German-influenced research group and the Polish actors, the terms used in the interviews had to be taken into account. The same cannot be assumed on the Polish side for such terms which are clearly connoted in German technical usage. While, for example, the term “dual vocational training” is academically and legally unambiguous in the German education system, a broader and sometimes very different interpretation of it was found in Poland, which in particular results from the little regulated role of the companies in vocational training in Poland.

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Citation

Dolinska, J., Ketschau, T. J., & Schulte, S. (2019). Research Design and Preliminary Results of an Exploratory Study on Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Poland. In: TVET@Asia, issue 13, 1-14. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue13/dolinska_ketschau_schulte.tvet13.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2019).