TVET@Asia Issue 23 offers participants of the Thai-German TVET Conference and other stakeholders involved in international TVET research cooperation a platform to publish their research outcomes. 

VINA DWIYANTI and DEDE RIDWAN (Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia) investigate the persistent mismatch between vocational schools and industry in Indonesia, where graduates of vocational high schools (Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan or SMK) face the highest unemployment rates compared to those from elementary schools, junior high schools, senior high schools, and universities. This issue persists despite national regulations designating SMK as institutions that prepare students for the workforce. Their article seeks to identify effective learning patterns that align school curricula with industry needs. Utilizing a systematic literature review (SLR) of sources from the past decade, including nationally and internationally indexed journals, the authors advocate industrial education through collaboration between SMKs and industries. This approach aims to produce a competitive and industry-relevant workforce by mapping industry requirements and implementing a realistic learning methodology that reflects current industrial practices and rapid sectoral changes.

In their paper, PATCHAREE CHAIYONG, TIN GANGERN, ARTITCHAI TANAPENG, NIWAT MOONPA (Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Thailand), and SIRIPHORN SCHLATTMANN (TU Dortmund University, Germany) explore the Tripartite Education System (TES) in Thailand and the ASEAN region. Their study examines public-private partnerships (PPP) involving government, industry, and educational institutions, mainly focusing on the Thai School-in-Factory (SiF) model at Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna. Three collaboration variants (A, B, and C) are analyzed through project documents, revealing similarities in structure and objectives but differences in curriculum and student selection processes. RMUTL acts as a key facilitator in these collaborations. The findings aim to bridge the gap between academia and industry, offering best practices for Thailand and the broader ASEAN region.

RAVY VOEUN and SONGHEANG AI from the SEAMEO Regional Center for Technical Education Development (SEAMEO TED) investigate effective hands-on activities among technical education students in Cambodia. Their study surveys 205 students using a quantitative method and factor analysis with principal component analysis (PCA). Descriptive statistics from SPSS version 25 reveal high proficiency in procedures, creativity, skill incorporation, and immediate application, with moderate proficiency in competition. The research identifies five key factors: procedural proficiency, creativity, skill incorporation, competition skills, and immediate application. The findings emphasize that national goals and quality education are essential in producing skilled employees. The researchers recommend these elements as critical motivators for TVET teachers to excel in their roles.

In their paper, TAWANDA CHINENGUNDU (University of Pretoria, South Africa) and JERALD HONDONGA (New Era College, Botswana) study inclusive education practices in TVET institutions in Botswana, South Africa, andThailand. The research uses a systematic review of international policies, government reports, and peer-reviewed journal articles to assess current practices, policies, and challenges in inclusive education. Despite existing policies, the TVET sector in these countries fails to meet the diverse needs of students, with facilities remaining segregated and excluding individuals with special needs. Effective inclusion relies more on institutional implementation than student abilities. The study identifies gaps in policy and practice, including a lack of teacher training in inclusive pedagogies and inadequate funding for infrastructure modernization and specialized equipment. The authors call for TVET leaders to address these barriers and develop inclusive solutions.

XUAN TIEN VO (Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Vietnam) explores the role of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) companies in addressing skilled worker shortages in Vietnam through workplace training. This informal training model is especially prominent in the logistics and engineering sectors. Support from international agencies like JICA, KOICA, GIZ, and DIHK has also been crucial in enhancing TVET in Vietnam. These agencies offer policy advice and help bridge gaps between stakeholders by promoting dual training models and tripartite collaborations between vocational schools and enterprises. The paper provides insights from the author’s experiences in TVET Vietnam, highlighting how international practices influence local policy and training organizations. It discusses how Vietnam can adopt international methods for curriculum development and cooperative training, suggesting models such as dual training and cooperative clustering.

In his article, ANEKWONG YODDUMNERN (Chiang Rai Vocational College, Thailand) focuses on drafting the creation of an Internet of Things (IoT) technology learning center with three main objectives: establishing a prototype IoT learning center, designing IoT learning modules, and setting up a maintenance center. This initiative showcases how emerging technologies can transform learning methodologies and enhance educational effectiveness. The study utilizes the ADDIE instructional design model, covering both hardware and software aspects. Collaborating with students, education officials, and local farmers, the project uses agile methods to manage stakeholders. The IoT system, based on a private cloud server, includes a smart device for wireless agricultural control and cloud-based monitoring via a mobile app. User feedback highlights high satisfaction with the lab environment (4.65 mean score) and strong module compliance with technology standards (5.00 score). Senior community members benefit significantly (5.00 score) from the IoT system, simplifying daily tasks. Visual diagrams clarify hardware and software maintenance processes, enhancing usability.

The Editors of Issue 23: 

Birgit Thomann, Friedrich Huebler, Songheang Ai, & Thomas Schröder

This study explored the effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia. Specifically, it investigated key hands-on activities and the level of effective hands-on activities of 205 technical education students. This study used a quantitative method employing a cross-sectional survey design and a factor analysis approach with Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Descriptive statistics were used to examine the data acquired using SPSS version 25, which provided the frequency count and percentage of responses. Moreover, the level of effective hands-on activities of technical education students revealed a high level of proficiency in procedures and steps, creativity, skill incorporation, immediate application, and a moderate level of skill in competition. The results revealed that the effective hands-on activities of technical education students are multidimensional and explore five factors: proficiency in procedures and steps, creativity, skill incorporation, being skilled in competition, and immediate application. They also demonstrated that national goals and missions were promoted while maintaining the quality of technically focused education to produce potential employees with better skill levels. Thus, the researchers recommend that important indicators are the elements that drive TVET teachers to not only work hard but also take pleasure in what they do.

Keywords: hands-on activities, effectiveness, TVET students at high school level

1        Introduction

The availability of basic resources is an important requirement for providing quality education. In addition, students have a modern approach to education, the methodology responsible for active learning, and their own learning. Students must be able to search for information, share knowledge with their peers, and discuss a variety of information and perspectives. They must continue investigating and examining what has changed into a debate to provide new understanding. To transform TVET skills into a weapon for poverty alleviation, individual lives must be transformed, which then develop hierarchically into community-level sustainable change. This is because it is through the transformation of individuals that families are transformed, and they, in turn, cooperatively transform communities. More recently, attention has focused on the provision of TVET as essential for developing human resources for socio-economic advancement, raising standards of living, and eliminating poverty. These crucial tasks have been completed by TVET thus far and have produced outstanding outcomes (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2013). TVET must be high-quality and responsive to achieve this. The hands-on activity must integrate theories and practices that reflect work reality to respond effectively. In addition, there is a disconnect between theories and practices in Cambodia’s TVET system as industry participation in practical training is lacking (ADB 2016).

1.1       Preamble 

Hence, the impact of hands-on activities is not yet clear, which is a very new notion for Cambodia. Cambodia faces unique challenges in building the skill capacity of Cambodian people to participate in the twenty-first-century labor market. Since there was a short history of development, starting after the restoration of complete peace in 1998, a great deal of effort is needed to catch up with a fast-developing world. A review of the Royal Government of Cambodia’s long-term social and economic policies revealed a dedication to skill development to support the framework for national economic development. The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) has laid out a comprehensive vision for the country’s socioeconomic development through the National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP) 2014–2018 and Phase III of the Rectangular Strategy (RS). These plans outline a series of progressive milestones aimed at elevating Cambodia’s economic status over the coming decades. The key objective is to transition from a Least Developed Country (LDC) to a lower-middle-income country by 2024, advance to an upper-middle-income country by 2030, and ultimately become a developed country by 2050. To meet the short- and long-term demands of economic growth and socioeconomic development, RGC is aware of the need to develop high-quality, competent, and capable human resources.

1.2       Research Objectives and Questions

In particular, this research paper will examine two main research questions:

Research question 1: What are the most effective hands-on activities for technical education                              students in Cambodia?

Research question 2: At what levels of effectiveness are there hand-on activities for technical education students in Cambodia?  

1.3       Scope of the Study

This study was conducted only in Cambodia. The 205 participants are technical education students from different TVET schools. 

2        Literature Review 

The development of TVET in Cambodia’s educational system is noticeable and consistent with the worldwide increase in TVET. The educational system formed and applied in TVET can produce students who will become quality citizens, well-behaved, responsible, and able to adapt to real-life situations (Azid et al. 2019). Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is defined as a combination of education, training, and skill development related to a variety of professional fields (Dawe, Miller, & Diop 2020). It demands formal, non-formal, and informal learning mechanisms that offer knowledge and skills to the workforce (Khan, Siddiqui, & Abbasi, 2020). On the other hand, the term “TVET” is a relatively new term for technical and vocational education and training, also known as the “training supply” as people learn new skills (ADB 2009).

While a variety of definitions of the term “hands-on” have been suggested, this paper uses the definition first suggested by Holstermann, Grube, and Bögeholz (2010), who saw its general meaning in using experience to learn. Working hands-on is believed to provide students with a more interesting and authentic experience (Franklin & Peat 2005; Nott & Wellington 1996). The majority of empirical investigations support the notion that engaging in hands-on activities promotes favorable motivational outcomes. For instance, according to Bergin (1999), hands-on activities are frequently believed to arouse students’ interest and inspire them to learn science with practical work, the so-called “hands-on experience.”

2.1       TVET in Technical Education Students

The addition of skills to promote the existing TVET system promises to benefit both developed and developing countries, which would otherwise be challenging. These skills not only benefit students but also help teachers improve their professional skills (Sarastuen 2020). With the advent of the 21st century, the following new concepts have emerged: Particularly noteworthy is the phenomenon of knowledge-based economies in developing countries (Rijal 2020). The creation of respectable jobs and industrial growth has recently received much attention, specifically how the policy ensures high productivity and quality workforces to compete with other countries in the region. The construction of a labor force that can successfully meet market demand requires a framework known as technical vocational education and training (TVET) (Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MoLVT) 2017, 3). Additionally, the National Technical Vocational Education and Training Policy will be crucial in creating a TVET system that is adaptable to market demands, both inside and outside the nation, allowing people of all ages to acquire new skills throughout their lives.

A large and growing body of literature has investigated technical education, which is recognized as one of the most successful human resource development strategies that should be adopted for a country’s rapid industrialization and long-term technological advancement. Because of its effects on productivity and economic growth, technical education has played a crucial role in the development of many societies (Odo et al. 2017). The current investigation aims to contribute to this important issue by exploring the effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia.  To achieve this goal, two research questions were developed. The first study likely delves into the specific hands-on activities that technical education students in Cambodia engage in and examines their effectiveness. It may explore the types of activities, how they are conducted, and their impact on learning outcomes or skill development. 

2.2       The Role and Challenges of TVET in Cambodia’s Socio-Economic Development 

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Cambodia, emphasizing its role in equipping individuals with practical skills essential for the workforce. TVET programs are highlighted as critical tools for reducing unemployment rates by preparing individuals for employment opportunities and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship. The article also underscores TVET’s potential to enhance productivity and contribute to economic growth in Cambodia. However, significant challenges remain, particularly in ensuring the quality and equitable access of TVET programs across the country. It discussed various ways forward, including policy reforms, improved infrastructure, and enhanced collaboration between educational institutions and industries. Addressing these challenges is crucial for leveraging TVET to address skill gaps effectively and promote inclusive development in Cambodia (Khorn 2023). Efforts to improve the quality and accessibility of TVET are essential to maximize its benefits for Cambodia’s socio-economic development.

Previous studies have reported that TVET in Cambodia emphasizes its crucial role in equipping individuals with practical skills necessary for the workforce. It discussed how TVET programs aim to reduce unemployment rates by preparing individuals for employment opportunities, while also fostering innovation and entrepreneurship among participants. Additionally, the article highlights TVET’s potential to enhance productivity and support economic growth in Cambodia. However, challenges persist in ensuring quality and equitable access to TVET programs across the country, which are crucial for addressing skill gaps and promoting inclusive development (Yok, Chrea & Pak 2019). Moreover, Song and Chea (2023) highlighted Vocational Education and Training (VET) in Cambodia, underlining its role in equipping individuals with practical skills essential for the workforce. It underscored the potential of VET in reducing unemployment, fostering innovation, enhancing productivity, and contributing to economic growth. However, it also addresses persistent challenges in ensuring quality and equitable access to VET programs across Cambodia. Efforts to strengthen TVET in Cambodia require collaborative initiatives focusing on curriculum development, teacher training, industry partnerships, and policy frameworks to maximize its socio-economic impact and contribute to sustainable development goals.

3        Research Methodology

3.1       Data Collection

After the pilot test had successfully concluded and the questionnaire had been officially changed, data collection for this research was coordinated among technical education students currently studying in years 1, 2, and 3 at General and Technical High Schools (GTHSs) in Cambodia.  As part of self-reported assessments, the paper-based questionnaire was filled out by the participants under direct instruction by a team of researchers. The participants were gathered to sit and listen to the researchers’ instructions in one common hall at the schools before filling out the questionnaire. Furthermore, they were also told not to copy or cheat from each other while filling out the questionnaire because they were high school students.

Additionally, data was gathered from six General and Technical High Schools (GTHSs), specifically: Pouk General and Technical High School, Preah Reach Samphea General and Technical High School, Decho Sen Koh Kong General and Technical High School, Chea Sim Tbeng Meanchey General and Technical High School, Hun Sen Peam Chikang High School, and Heng Samrin Tbong Khmum General and Technical High School, located in six different provinces. The selection criteria for GTHSs are: (1) providing any trade service starting in year 2; (2) the participants may be evaluated by appointment; and (3) the curriculum guidelines for technical education at the upper secondary level are followed by GTHSs under the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport’s (MoEYS) instructions.

As mentioned above in the reliability and quality process, the confirmation letter from SEAMEO TED and an authorization letter from the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports for the fundamental examination have just been finished in the meantime for the pilot test. Therefore, with the participation of the high school directors, one university rector, and the classroom teachers who were teaching in these high schools, the researcher visited each class for around 20 minutes to present themselves and the motivation behind the study to the students in Khmer and to request their collaboration. Additionally, the researcher clarified the students’ participation in the study, the privacy and secrecy of students’ answers, and the importance of the investigation. After that, the questionnaires were conveyed to the participants, relying on the sample size that the researcher had officially arranged, and they were gathered immediately after the survey finished.

3.2       Participant Selection

The target group is year 1, 2, and 3 students currently studying at GTHSs. The selection criteria for participants are: (1) study years 1, 2, and 3; (2) currently studying at any trade at GTHSs; (3) volunteering to participate in the study; and (4) being committed to graduate year 3. The participants are from diverse backgrounds, as described in the statistics revealing age, sex, years of studies, trade, names of schools, and school province. No incentives were provided for the participants after they filled out the questionnaire.

3.3       Research Method

Students from Cambodia’s General and Technical Education are included in a sample of the research. The data was collected using a paper-based questionnaire, descriptive statistics, and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). There were 205 General and Technical Education students from different TVET high schools in Cambodia, of whom 129 were male and 76 were female. The questionnaire was adopted from the reviews of three TVET experts. The consent letter was used for data collection. All the participants volunteered to join the research and understood its purpose. All of the participants could withdraw from being participants at any time.

3.4       Research Instruments

Questionnaire items cover five trades consisting of mechanics, electricity, agronomy, computer science, and animal husbandry for years 1, 2, and 3 of the technical education curriculums for technical education at the upper secondary level (MoEYS 2015). The questionnaire was separated into two sections: Demographic Information and Content of Statements on the effectiveness of hands-on activities for technical education students in Cambodia were planned in view of the examination targets and the research questions as follows:

Section 1 tested the respondents for their statistical information, for example, age, sex, years of studies, trade, names of schools, and school provinces. The participants were asked to mark in the appropriate column. 

Section 2 was the content of statements created on the effectiveness of hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia who were involved in their activities. This part comprised 22 items, focusing on the effectiveness of hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia. In this section, the respondents were asked to point out the frequency of completing each activity on a 5-point Likert scale as follows:

• 1   means         Strongly disagree
• 2   means   Disagree
• 3   means         Neutral
• 4   means   Agree
• 5   means         Strongly agree

Since the participants were Cambodian high school students, the entire section of the questionnaire was translated into Khmer to avoid language barriers and misunderstandings, to provide respondents with a clear understanding of the questionnaire parts, and to ensure the accuracy and suitability of the interpretation. On the other hand, students from six GTHSs have been studying the curriculum contents of five trades at their respective schools. Therefore, construct validity was ensured because a measurement tool represents the thing to be measured. Each trade has different items/contents with the same Likert type and 5-point scale. 

3.5       Data Analysis

A computer service program analyzed the survey data for the study. The data was analyzed for descriptive statistics Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). The analyzed data answered the following questions:

Research question 1: What are the most effective hands-on activities for technical education students in Cambodia?

To answer this question, descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations), and Factor Analysis (EFA) were used. The mean and standard deviations would be used to measure the categories of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia. To determine the frequency levels, the questionnaire included 22 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale. The scale ranges from 1 (strongly disagreed) to 5 (strongly agreed).

Research question 2: At what levels of effectiveness are there hands-on activities for technical education students in Cambodia?

To answer this question, EFA (means and standard deviations) was used.

4        Research Findings

4.1       Exploratory Factor Analysis

Table 1 shows the factor structure of the effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia. Using main component analysis, the fundamental dimensions of 22 attitude-related items were identified, and the questions were grouped accordingly, resulting in the five factor groups retained. The factor pattern from the five retained factors was then transformed through varimax rotation. In analyzing the effectiveness of standardized factor loadings, according to Tapia (1996), the factor loadings must be 0.4 or higher for a sample size of exactly or more than 200 respondents in order to evaluate the item as significant. With these, items 18 (I have ever done some hands-on activities behind the curriculum or textbook contents) and 6 (There are sufficient materials, equipment, or farms for hands-on activities) were eliminated because their loads fell below 0.4 and thus failed to meet the minimum criteria.

The Cronbach’s coefficient of reliability was used to assess the reliability of the five factor groups. Excellent internal reliability for the first four dimensions is demonstrated by very high Cronbach’s alpha statistics, which confirm the great reliability of the groups participating in effective hands-on activities.

Table 1: Tests of Data Normality

According to Table 1, there was a rotated component matrix with five components, each with a different category of scores. 

Table 2: Rotated Component Matrix

Meanwhile, the alphas for the next factors were considered to have good internal reliability, showing values above 0.7 (Cronbach 1951). It could be noted that Factor 6 did not indicate a reliability value since this factor only has 2 items and running a reliability test was estimated as not being possible. Furthermore, the eigenvalue and percentage of variance were also identified to guarantee the appropriateness of the items as indicators of the factors. The eigenvalues should be greater than one (eigenvalues > 1), as those less than one account for less variability and are thus not retained in the analysis (Girden 2001).

Upon reviewing the items and examining the result, the first factor has indicated four items: Item_9, Item_11, Item_17, and Item_22. It has a high internal consistency of 0.788 and a high degree of importance, as it revealed 19.76% of the total variances and has an eigenvalue of 26.389. This factor involves steps in the students’ activities in terms of skills and knowledge. Thus, this dimension was named Proficiency in procedures and steps.

The second factor consisted of four items in the data set. It has a high reliability of 0.788, accounts for a total variance of 6.25% and has an eigenvalue of 11.542. Item_2, Item_3, Item_4, and Item_8 are included. This factor involves the feelings and attitudes of students regarding assessment, stating that the assessment is not tough and stressful and emphasizing achievement evaluation and schoolwork regularly. This factor was named Creativity. Meanwhile, the third factor has a total variance of 2.28% and an eigenvalue of 7.961. Upon the examination of the items, four items were included, which displayed a reliability of 0.788. These items are Item_1, Item_5, Item_10, and Item_16. This factor involves active teacher instruction in order to obtain strict guidance and orientation. Thus, this dimension was named Skill incorporation.

The fourth factor indicated three items that displayed a high reliability of 0.788. These items include Item_19, Item_20, and Item_21. The total variance accounts for 1.71% and has an eigenvalue of 7.024. This factor participates in the competition as one of the contestants. Thus, this dimension was named Being skilled in competition. 

Lastly, the fifth factor contained three data set items, namely Item_7, Item_14, and Item_15. It has an internal reliability of 0.788, a total variance of 0.83%, and an eigenvalue of 5.818. This factor discusses how students were able to perform tasks with the aid of various modes of instruction. Thus, this dimension was named Immediate application.

Table 3: Effectiveness of Technical Education Students’ Hands-on Activities

Based on the results of the conducted factor analysis, it can be revealed that the grouping of the attitude items into various factors is statistically confirmed. Table 3 shows the level of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in the new normal. Through the effectiveness of hands-on activities in technical education, students discover five factors, namely: proficiency in procedures and steps, creativity, skill incorporation, being skilled in competition, and immediate application. The results showed that the level of effective hands-on activities obtained an overall mean of 3.76 (SD = 0.38), with a descriptive level of “high.” This indicates the effectiveness of hands-on activities for technical education students in the context of effective learning. By changing their perspective, they are better able to anticipate and deal with difficulties or challenges. 

• A. Immediate application: The immediate application dimension of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia obtained the highest mean score of 4.08 (SD = 0.55) among all factors. As indicated in the data, the overall mean for the level of immediate application among students was high. The respondents concluded from the findings that performance indicators converted the more comprehensive hands-on activities into measurable and teachable targets. Students focus on the practical application of knowledge gained from projects, tests, and homework from numerous classes studied throughout a student’s high school career.
• B. Creativity: Among all factors, the creativity dimension of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia obtained a mean score of 4.00 (SD = 0.50). As indicated in the data, the overall mean for students’ creativity level was orally described as high. Based on their responses, the respondents assumed that they were able to overcome obstacles or find creative solutions to any issues. Respondents assumed that they regularly attended school or studied school subjects. For instance, it consists of obtaining knowledge and developing skills by exciting methods. They worked as a team to facilitate the instruction based on learning activities they had recently completed in their class.
• C. Proficiency in procedures and steps: The proficiency in procedures and steps dimension of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia obtained a mean score of 4.00 (SD = 0.50) among all factors. As indicated in the data, the overall mean for the level of proficiency in procedures and steps of the student was high. Based on the results of the respondents’ study, having a good connection with their classmates is better for doing their homework and having good communication with their friends. Students acquire the knowledge, skills, and competencies required in a field of study as well as those required for success in school, the workplace, and social life. 
• D. Skill incorporation: Among all factors, the skill incorporation dimension of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia obtained a mean score of 3.97 (SD = 0.56). As indicated in the data, the overall mean for the level of skill incorporation among students was high. Based on the result, respondents supposed that their learning allowed them to be independent in exploring new ideas, building new techniques, improving learning, and engaging in interactive exercises to assist in the learning process, particularly for complex topics that demand a great level of understanding. It can be concluded that they were able to monitor their progress as they received clear instructions.
• E. Being skilled in competition: Among all factors, the being skilled in competition dimension of effective hands-on activities of technical education students in Cambodia obtained a mean score of 2.75 (SD = 0.87). As indicated in the data, the overall mean for the level of being skilled in competition among students was moderate. Based on the findings, respondents hypothesized that skills would ensure they did not miss any important information or activities, provide them with insight into the true nature of competition, and account for working issues. As a result, we can see an increase in student engagement as they are more able to ask questions, debate course-related issues, and even compare their assessment scores. This encourages healthy competition among the students and helps them perform at their best every time. 

Based on the results of the study, the finding was found to be significantly below the threshold. Moreover, the level of students’ satisfaction with exploring effective hands-on activities with technical education students in Cambodia is moderate, obtaining the lowest mean score among all present factors.

5        Conclusion 

Based on the findings of the study, the authors concluded that “the exploration of effective hands-on activities by technical education students in Cambodia is multidimensional.” The factor structure revealed five factors, namely: proficiency in procedures and steps, creativity, skill incorporation, being skilled in competition, and immediate application. Moreover, the level of exploration of effective hands-on activities by technical education students in the Cambodia context is characterized by a high level of proficiency in procedures and steps, creativity, skill incorporation, and immediate application, and a moderate level of skill in competition.

6        Recommendations

The researchers acknowledged that the significance of their findings depended on how they interpreted the results, and they emphasized the need to address these interpretation limits. Thus, in the light of previous findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are offered:

1. The study found a moderate level of skill in competition among respondents from all academic departments. In order to address successful learning in the new normal, the researchers advise administrators to assess and boost the effectiveness of current policies and to take the appropriate steps. 
2. An internship and apprenticeship program should be considered to expose students to more practical activities.
3. Students can complete their capstone projects under the guidance of instructors.
4. Policy on internship and apprentice program should be formulated.
5. Guidelines and directives on students’ capstone projects should be developed to functionally guide students.
6. The researchers also recommend revising the study’s findings to address its limitations. Future researchers can perform a confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the dimensionality of effective hands-on activities for technical education students. Factor analysis can also validate existing and new factors that have served as dimensions of effective hands-on activities for technical education students.

References

ADB (2009). Good practice in technical and vocational education and training. Manila: Asian Development Bank.

ADB (2016). Policy priorities for a more responsive technical and vocational education and training system in Cambodia (ADB briefs). Manila: Asian Development Bank.

Azid, N., Rawian, R., Shaik-Abdullah, S., & Tee, T. K. (2019). The development of interactive case-based smart thinking and industrial problem-solving stimulator to enhance TVET students’ thinking skills. In: Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 14(5), 2643-2656.

Bergin, D. A. (1999). Influences on classroom interest. Educational Psychologist, 34, 87–98. 

Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. In: Psychometrika, 16, 297-334. Online: http://cda.psych.uiuc.edu/psychometrika_citation_classic_summaries/cronbach_citation_classic_alpha.pdf (retrieved 23.06.2024).

Dawe, M., Miller, T., & Diop, O. (2020). Policy brief: Using digital credentials to keep the promises of TVET. New Delhi: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Online:https://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv:88623 (retrieved 23.06.2024).

Franklin, S. & Peat, M. (2005). Virtual versus real: an argument for maintaining diversity in the learning environment. In: International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life Long Learning, 15(1-2), 67-78. 

Girden, E. R. (2001). Evaluating research articles from start to finish. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Online:https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6777401M/Evaluating_research_articles_from_start_to_finish (retrieved 23.06.2024).

Holstermann, N., Grube, D., & Bögeholz, S. (2010). Hands-on activities and their influence on students’ interest. In: Research in Science Education, 40(5), 743-757. 

Khan, A., Siddiqui, S. H., & Abbasi, M. I. (2020). Professional Development as a Determinant of Self-efficacy of TVET Teachers, under the Mediating and Moderating Effect of Technology Training and Work Culture. In: Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS), 40(2), 745-757.

Khorn, S. (2023). Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Cambodia: Significance, Challenges, and Ways Forward. In: Innovations And Challenges In Cambodian Education, 193. 

Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MoEYS) (2015). The curriculum on technical education at upper secondary level. Phnom Penh: Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport.

Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MoLVT). (2017). National technical vocational education and training policy 2017-2025. Phnom Penh: Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training.

No, F. & Sok, S. (2022) Primary education in Cambodia: in search of quality. In McNamara, V & Hayden, M. (eds.); Education in Cambodia. Singapore: Springer, 29–54.

Nott, M. & Wellington, J. (1996). When the black box springs open: practical work in schools and the nature of science. In: International Journal of Science Education, 18(7), 807-818.

Odo, J. U., Okafor, W. C., Odo, A. L., Ejikeugwu, L. N., & Ugwuoke, C. N. (2017). Technical Education – The Key to Sustainable Technological Development. In: Universal Journal of Educational Research, 5(11), 1878-1884. 

Rijal, N. (2020). Desk Top Study: Challenges in Curriculum Development of TVET in preparation for the 21st century to Nepal. In: SSRN Electronic Journal. 

Sarastuen, N. K. (2020). From vocational worker to vocational teacher: A study of identity transition and loss. In: Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 72(3), 333-349.

Song, S. & Chea, P. (2023). Vocational Education and Training in Cambodia. In: International Handbook on Education in South East Asia. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 1-24.

Tapia, M. (1996). The attitudes toward mathematics instrument. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Tuscaloosa, AL (ERIC Reproduction Service No. ED 404165).

UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (2013). Revisiting global trends in TVET: Reflections on theory and practice. UNESCO. Online: https://unevoc.unesco.org/fileadmin/up/2013_epub_revisiting_global_trends_in_tvet_book.pdf (retrieved 24.06.2024).Yok, S., Chrea, S., & Pak, R. (2019). Technical and vocational education and training in Cambodia: Current status and future development. In: Vocational education and training in ASEAN member states: Current status and future development, 25-43. 

The papers in this issue of TVET@Asia provide insights into different countries’ approaches to achieving excellence in technical and vocational education and training. The authors contribute to highlighting best practice examples from their respective countries and regions by also highlighting the relevance of TVET research and the role of TVET teachers and trainers for excellence.

VI HOANG DANG and THANH THUY NGUYEN (Ho Chi Minh University of Technology and Education) explore the relationship between TVET providers and industry in Vietnam using an explanatory sequential design. Working with 162 manufacturing company managers, 36 selected managers, 18 TVET providing managers, 6 policymakers and 7 association representatives in Vietnam, they identified a significant need for a skilled workforce in industries and a mismatch with regard to the involvement of stakeholders in the skills development process. The findings pointed towards the significant role that localities should play in strengthening the public-private partnership model through the engagement of local authorities and community members.

HASAN CAGLAYAN DUNDAR from the University of Ankara Yildirim Beyazit examines the critical role of TVET training centres in decreasing Turkey’s high NEET (Not in Employment, Education, or Training) for young people. He found that TVET training centres play a key role in fostering a skilled workforce to boost economic growth. The paper advocates the holistic transformation of centres and the comprehensive system in order to reduce NEET rates.

J. MANUEL GALVIN ARRIBAS (European Training Foundation, Italy) discusses the importance of networking for vocational excellence, particularly in the context of addressing challenges such as climate change, demographic trends, and skills shortages. The European Training Foundation’s Network for Excellence is highlighted as an example of international networking on VET excellence. The article also emphasizes the strategic objective of vocational excellence in European member states and the need for innovative policy reforms. Additionally, it mentions the importance of vocational excellence in countries such as North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey, and Moldova, among others.

SOLEIMAN PAKSERESHT (Bu-Ali Sina University) has written an article on improving coordination between stakeholders of the TVET system in Iran. The article discusses the history of governance regimes in Iran’s TVET system, and the challenges faced by the High Council in coordinating the formal, informal, and non-formal subsystems of skills training. The article analyzes the core model of coordination underpinned in the Comprehensive System of Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act (CSTVET) and embodied in the High Council structure and functions. The author uses the evaluation framework provided by the ILO and UNESCO in 2018 to identify ways of improving coordination between stakeholders of the TVET system in Iran.

The main focus of the paper written by MERVI JANSSON and ANNA LAGER (Omnia Education Partnerships, Finland) is concerning a research-based model that analyses vocational excellence. In general, the model developed by Jansson and Lager is composed of horizontal and vertical dimensions of vocational excellence. In specific, the horizontal dimension comprises infrastructure, human resources, pedagogical landscape, systems and processes and stakeholder collaboration, whereas the vertical dimension emphasizes innovation, greening and digitalisation. The authors assert that TVET providers must consider the influence of vertical components on the horizontal components in order to achieve vocational excellence. In short, the TVET excellence model serves as a framework and guideline to TVET practitioners to achieve vocational excellence through continuous improvement and collaboration between public and private sectors at both national and international levels.

SONGHEANG AI and VORN TIM (Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Technical Education Development (SEAMEO TED)) conducted a study to identify the core elements of instructional practices. The survey involved 87 instructors from a training institute in Cambodia and a set of questionnaires was used for data collection. In their study, Ai and Tim discovered that teaching methodologies, curriculum and training programs, content knowledge, and instructional materials and equipment are the major factors that contribute to effective instructional practices. The authors suggested that those identified components should taken into consideration for the purpose of instructors’ professional development.

The Editors of Issue 21
Lai Chee Sern, Niwat Moonpa, Tee Tze Kiong, & Songheang Ai

Instructional practice plays a key role in accelerating the pace of transformative change in the institute. However, instructors’ competencies in harnessing the essence of curricula and academic guidelines are hindered. The aim of the study is to identify the key themes of instructional practices of instructors who are currently lecturing typical trades at the institute from one schooling year. 87 students studying certain trades were asked to fill out the paper-based questionnaire voluntarily. The 22-item questionnaire used the Likert-type five-point scale for participants’ ratings. The questionnaire reported a reliability of α=.94. The single-factor test was conducted to check for the common method bias of the data. The results of Harman’s single-factor test indicated that different scale items in this study did not load into one common factor (N=87), with about 40% – the total variance explained did not exceed 50%. To ensure the content validity of the questionnaire, all 22 items were adapted from the relevant literature. The quantitative method was employed with a cross-sectional study survey design to analyze data. Specifically, principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to answer a research question. After conducting the factor analysis, four factors were decided to be extracted with eigenvalues of 65.457% of the total variance explained. The results highlighted four components of instructional practices consisting of teaching methodologies, curriculum and training programmes, content knowledge, and instructional materials and equipment. The findings suggest that more professional development programmes should be considered for instructors in pedagogies and subject matters. Addressing the development needs of instructors should be encouraged.

Key Words: Teaching methodologies, instructional practice, content knowledge, and instructors.

1      Introduction

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) plays a key role in developing the economy by investing in human capital. Each government turns its economic development plans into a TVET development plan focusing on youth development for skilling, upskilling, and reskilling. TVET fosters human resource development, enables mobility of labour, and makes a great difference to the economy (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 2015). For example, the Royal Government of Cambodia formulated a national technical and vocational education and training policy for 2017-2025, and an industrial development policy for the period 2015-2025, seeking to transition Cambodia from a labour-intensive economy to an industrial-driven one. It also developed a master plan for technical education at upper secondary level 2015-2019. TVET is one of the government’s strategies geared towards the achievement of sustainable development goals and the alleviation of poverty (MoEYS 2019). Furthermore, the government envisions a country with at least one general and technical high school within one province in the short term, and at least one general and technical high school within one district in the long term. This ambition was also mentioned in its rectangular strategies embedded in the economic development plan.

The fledgling system of TVET in Cambodia is within the purview of several relevant ministries, challenging TVET management to ensure quality service deliveries. The instructor, as one element of service delivery assurances, plays an integral part in enhancing the TVET system. However, there is a shortage of competent TVET instructors to deliver quality service (ADB 2019). Most of them use traditional methods such as a teacher-centred approach, lecturing to students in the classroom. This teaching methodology focuses on theory-based lecture rather than real work settings. In addition, some instructional materials and equipment are outdated and unfit for instructional purposes. The lack of suitable instructional materials and equipment also hinders students’ hands-on skills acquisition. This apart, stakeholders such as the private sector and social partners, are required to invest in TVET due to public financial resources constraints (The Royal Government of Cambodia 2017).

The curriculum is not aligned with industrial needs because the development process is steered by instructors and curriculum experts without private sector involvement. Links between TVET institutes and industries are weak, their level of cooperation poor (MoEYS 2019; Ai 2015). There is a mismatch between supply and demand, exacerbated by misunderstandings and miscommunication. The TVET curriculum does not reflect real work settings, making it difficult for graduates to find decent jobs, or for employers to find qualified employees (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 2015). Training needs are not responsive to labour market needs (The Royal Government of Cambodia 2017). The TVET curriculum does not meet the current needs of the labour market in Cambodia (Thomas 2019). TVET institutes annually produce 2,500 TVET graduates, failing to meet labour market needs (MoEYS 2019). In addition, instructors’ content knowledge is limited on account of their own lack of sufficient training during their university studies. Qualified TVET instructors with good pedagogical knowledge and industry experience are therefore limited in their endeavours to enhance the TVET system in the region (Ai 2015; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 2015).

Showcasing and utilizing the benefits of results, the school will plan and project its resources, activities, and efforts for further development. Instructors need regular professional programmes for their particular trade to support the development of content or pedagogical knowledge which can be applied in schools to encourage success. Instructors will modify their teaching methodologies to focus on a student-centred approach and hands-on skills. Finally, instructional quality will be attained by enhancing instructors’ competencies.

Investing in human capital focusing on TVET is the foundation of skills development for youth (MoEYS 2019). The purpose of the research was to identify key themes of the practices of instructors currently teaching any particular trade. What are the key themes of instructors’ teaching practices?

2      Literature Review

Instructors are the key catalyst to achieving TVET quality learning outcomes. Instructors might be equipped with a holistic approach to make this tangible. Thus, TVET instructors might be part of professional development programmes which regularly keep them abreast of new technological innovations relating to content, pedagogical, and technological knowledge (Ai 2015).

The level of TVET instructors’ instructional practices accelerates quality-of-service deliveries. Ismail, Nopiah, Rasul and Leong (2017) undertook a literature review of fourteen research articles published between 2009 and 2015 to identify Malaysian TVET instructors’ instructional challenges. They found that Malaysian TVET instructors needed to improve their content, pedagogical, and technological knowledge to deliver quality training courses to TVET students. Qualified TVET instructors could guarantee successful training in both theoretical and practical contexts.

TVET instructors’ competency standards set a minimum level of qualifications to ensure quality service delivery. Ai (2020) undertook a qualitative study to develop competency components for technical and vocational education instructors in Cambodia with 12 TVET instructors. He identified four key themes: content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, administrative competencies, and supporting competencies for TVET instructors. The academic qualifications of TVET instructors will help them to measure the success of students’ learning outcomes after graduation.

Student performance is generally the result of cumulated learning with a variety of teachers who are specialized in different subjects (Zakharov et al. 2016). Teachers have to be cognitively and professionally competent for a competitive labour market in the region. To be technically proficient in quality instruction, teachers must possess effective instructional prerequisites. Stronge and Hindman (2006) stressed five teaching prerequisites consisting of (1) verbal competencies for communicating their knowledge to students; (2) content knowledge specializing in the subject matter; (3) academic coursework with a required credit number; (4) certification with teaching licences; and (5) teaching experience for a number of years in their teaching careers. The prerequisites vary from context to context because of different socio-economic settings.

Teachers’ knowledge and experiences affect students’ learning outcomes (Olfos et al. 2014). A teacher with seasoned teaching experience knows how students construct their own knowledge, acquire skills, and develop a positive disposition toward learning (Mishra & Koehler 2006). In addition, teachers can transfer knowledge, skills, and desired values into teaching presentations and actions for students’ learning on a daily basis (Shulman, 1987). Teachers’ content knowledge plays a key role in enhancing teaching quality and students’ learning outcomes (Zakharov et al. 2016). Without qualified teachers’ effective guidance and instruction inside the classroom, learning cannot be achieved successfully (Azigwe et al. 2016).

Proficiency in the curriculum development process and instructional equipment operation related to hands-on skills is crucial for TVET instructors to capture both theoretical and practical perspectives. Pangeni (2014) noted that educational quality is evident in teachers who are proficient in content knowledge, teaching methodologies, and equipment operation. A competent teacher is required to possess knowledge of content, teaching methodologies, and curriculum development (Shulman 1987; Robertson 2008). Zbar, Marshall and Power (2007) highlighted teachers’ professional standards focusing on content knowledge, teaching methodologies, and curriculum/course outline designs for student learning.

3      Methods

3.1     Participants (N=87)

Primary data was collected by distributing one type of questionnaire to students who were currently studying a trade. 87 students were asked to fill out the paper-based questionnaire through the consent form allowed by the institute’s board of management. The criteria for choosing the participants were (1) students who are currently studying any vocational trade, and (2) students who are currently studying at NPIC from year 1 (C1) to year 3 (C3). The demographic information of the participants was highlighted in Table 1 and Table 2.

Table 1: Gender Information of the Participants

Table 2: Academic Year of the Participants

Notice: C2 or Year 2: Certificate level 2 or grade 11 in trades; C3 or Year 3: Certificate level 3 or grade 12; C1 or Year 1: Certificate level 1 or grade 10

3.2     Instrument Development

This research study was based on the survey design. A cross-sectional study approach was employed to analyze data at one point in time (Creswell 2012). To ensure content validity, 12 questionnaire items were extracted from Lim and Kim (2017). The other 10 items were added by two TVET experts. The Likert-type 5-point scale was employed ranging from 1 (the lowest score) to 5 (the highest score). For example, 1 was for poor, 2 for fair, 3 for good, 4 for very good, and 5 for excellent. Item 1 asked: if you frankly evaluate the technical training in your institute, how much do you think your needs for skills and knowledge satisfy in this curriculum? Item 2 asked: if you evaluate the technical training in your institute frankly, how much do you think the successful completion of the programme would improve your skills and knowledge? Item 3 asked: if you evaluate the technical training in your institute, how much do you think the contents of the training would need to be updated to reflect the current work situation in the related company?

3.3     Data Analysis

The questionnaire reported reliability of α=.94 (N=87), supporting internal reliability within the scale for students. George and Mallery (2003) provided a rule of thumb that if α is more than .90, it is excellent for internal consistency for all items within the scale of the questionnaire (as cited in Gliem & Gliem 2003). Furthermore, the significance levels of Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk’s test were .12 for all 22 items (P>.05). This means that the data is normal for further analysis. A KMO test for the current instructional practice of lecturers yielded a score of .901, which is greater than .60. The Barlett’s test of Sphericity yielded a significant level of .000, which is less than .05 (P<.05). Therefore, a factor analysis is appropriate for data.

In addition, a single-factor test was conducted to check for the common method bias of the data. The results of Harman’s single-factor test indicated that different scale items in this study did not load into one common factor (N=87), with about 40% – the total variance explained did not exceed 50%.

4      Results

After conducting the factor analysis, four factors were extracted with eigenvalues of 65.457% of the total variance explained, as shown in Table 3. Factor 1 relates to teaching methodology, factor 2 focuses on curriculum and training programmes as a whole, factor 3 refers to teachers’ content knowledge, and factor 4 encompasses instructional materials and equipment. Each factor and component can be seen in Table 4.

Table 3: Eigenvalues of the total variance explained

Table 4: Rotated Component Matrix

5      Discussion and Conclusion

The key themes of the TVET instructors’ instructional practice were identified as four components: teaching methodology, curriculum and training programmes, content knowledge, and instructional materials and equipment. The results reflect the reality of TVET teacher training programmes in Cambodia. After studying at university for some years to acquire content knowledge and hands-on skills, they might attend teaching methodology courses for one or two school years (depending on the different supervising ministries) if they want to be teachers. Results were consistent with the goal of national TVET policy 2017-2025, mentioning the development of instructors’ capacities in terms of teaching methodologies, and operating materials and equipment (ADB 2018). Teachers’ teaching methodologies enhance teaching quality which will be reflected in students’ academic outcomes later on (Ganyaupfu 2013). In contrast, TVET instructors should possess sufficient industry experience to be authentic to the realities of work (ADB 2018). Some TVET instructors are poorly equipped with regard to industry experience (Joo 2018; Misra 2011). This might be due to TVET instructors already possessing industrial skills.

The results captured TVET students’ perception of instructional practices and were consistent with research undertaken in South Korea. For example, TVET instructors might be competent in content knowledge, teaching methodologies, instructional material and equipment operation, and curriculum, textbook, and training material development (Joo 2018). This might be due to similarities in the TVET system and educational context.

The findings have some limitations. The study was male-dominated, with 78% of the participants in the research sample. A greater number of female students should be considered for further research. However, female participation in TVET courses is considerably limited in Cambodia. Most TVET courses are geared toward male jobs (ADB 2016). The target participants were C1/grade 10, C2/grade 11, and C3/grade 12, with limited perception of TVET instructors’ instructional practices. The number of participants should be enlarged, ranging from short-course students to TVET university students in order to capture a complete set of TVET perceptions toward their instructors for further research.

Based on the results, instructors themselves should consider these competencies as the professional development programme under coordination and support from the school. If these competencies can be enhanced effectively for TVET instructors, their capacities can be raised up gradually to close the skills gap. Finally, Cambodian instructors will be better equipped to support, motivate, deliver, and prepare learners to become complete citizens of a knowledge society by the year 2030 (MoEYS 2019).

References

Ai, S. (2015). A comparative study on the TVET curriculum at upper secondary level of Cambodia and other 4 Asian countries (Master’s thesis). Cheonan: Korea University of Technology and Education.

Ai, S. (2020). Exploring the Competency Components for Technical and Vocational Education Teachers in Cambodia through a Qualitative Approach (Dissertation). Cheonan: Korea University of Technology and Education.

Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2016). Policy priorities for a more responsive technical and vocational education and training system in Cambodia. In: Policy Briefs No. 73, 1-8. Manila: ADB.

Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2018). Cambodia’s new technical and vocational education and training Policy. In: Policy Briefs No.73, 1-4. Manila: ADB.

Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2019). Cambodia and Asian development bank: Partnership for inclusive growth. Development Effectiveness Brief. Manila: ADB.

Azigwe, J. B., Kyriakides, L., Panayiotou, A., & Creemers, B. P. (2016). The impact of effective teaching characteristics in promoting student achievement in Ghana. In: International Journal of Educational Development, 51, 51-61.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitive research (4^th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2015). Technical and vocational education and training in the ASEAN region: Sustainable growth through regional networking. Bonn: BMZ.

Ganyaupfu, E. M. (2013). Teaching methods and students’ academic performance. In: International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 2, 9, 29-35.

George, D. & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Gliem, J. A. & Gliem, R. R. (2003). Calculating, interpreting, and reporting Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient for Likert-type scales. Presented at the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing, and Community Education, October 8-10, 2003. Columbus: The Ohio State University.

Ismail, K., Nopiah, Z., Rasul, M. S., & Leong, P. (2017). Malaysian teachers’ competency in technical vocational education and training: A review. In Abdullah et al. (eds.): Regionalization and Harmonization in TVET, 59-64.

Joo, L. (2018). The excellence of technical vocational education and training (TVET) institutions in Korea: Case study on Busan national mechanical technical high school. In: International Education Studies, 11, 11, 69-87.

Lim, S.-Y. & Kim, J.-I. (2017). Results of baseline survey for developing master plan for Myanmar (Survey Report). Official Development Assistance Project funded by Korea International Cooperation Agency. Seongnam: KOICA.

Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (MoEYS). (2019). Cambodia’s education 2030 roadmap: Sustainable Development Goal 4. Phnom Penh: MoEYS.

Mishra, P. & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. In: Teachers College Record, 108, 6, 1017-1054.

Misra, P. K. (2011). VET teachers in Europe: policies, practices and challenges. In: Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 63, 1, 27-45.

Olfos, R., Goldrine, T., & Estrella, S. (2014). Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge and its relation with students’ understanding. In: Revista Brasileira de Educação, 19, 59, 913-944.

Pangeni, K. P. (2014). Factors determining educational quality: Student mathematics achievement in Nepal. In: International Journal of Educational Development, 34, 30-41.

Robertson, I. (2008). VET teachers’ knowledge and expertise. In: International Journal of Training Research, 6, 1, 1-22.

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. In: Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1, 1-21.

Stronge, J. H. & Hindman, J. L. (2006). The teacher quality index: A protocol for teacher selection. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The Royal Government of Cambodia. (2017). National technical and vocational education and training policy 2017-2025 (Policy). Phnom Penh: Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training.

Thomas, J. (2019). Cambodia’s workforce needs help. Blog post. Online: https://theaseanpost.com/article/cambodias-workforce-needs-help (retrieved 28.01.2021).

Zakharov, A., Tsheko, G., & Carnoy, M. (2016). Do “better” teachers and classroom resources improve student achievement? A causal comparative approach in Kenya, South Africa, and Swaziland. In: International Journal of Educational Development, 50, 108-124.

Zbar, V., Marshall, G., & Power, P. (2007). Better schools, better teachers, better results: A handbook for improved performance management in your school. Camberwell: ACER Press.

During the worldwide disruption caused by the pandemic, policymakers and experts expressed ongoing concerns about ICT integration embedded into effective instruction. Most of the 11 SEAMEO member countries are developing countries with limited capacities in ICT application. This issue deserves greater attention, consideration and alignment. This study aims to assess ICT skills competency levels of technical education teachers. In response to this research objective, 5,704 technical education teachers from vocational-technical high schools in the 11 SEAMEO member countries were polled via a Google Forms questionnaire. The cross-sectional survey design utilised descriptive statistics and Harman’s single factor test to analyse data. An independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA were used to test hypotheses. The results found that technical education teachers are moderately proficient in Microsoft Excel but have good internet skills. The study points to the limitations of ICT skills and confirms the ongoing need for combined resources such as ICT infrastructure, outsourcing, and curriculum review.

Keywords: Information and communication technology, technical education teacher, Microsoft Excel skills, internet skills.

1        Introduction

Technical education, through academic and vocational studies, prepares students and learners for immediate jobs by applying basic concepts of science and technology. A school-to-work approach is gaining momentum everywhere to tackle an ever-changing labour market which is strongly influenced by the digital revolution. It is typically offered in a wide variety of academic institutions including vocational-technical high schools. Technical education is flexible to capture learners’ interests and meets labour market needs with a variety of trades such as agriculture, sciences and technology, construction, and manufacturing (ADB 2009).

1.1         Preamble

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills support effective instructional skills by catering to various learning approaches, such as collaborative and inquiry-based learning. ICT reaches unlimited potentials of students and teachers (Hakkarainen et al. 2001), playing an integral part in supporting ASEAN economic integration and community building (ASEAN Secretariat 2015). ICT impacts learning societies, providing greater access to a variety of learners to build inclusive and robust learning environments (Park & Kim 2020). The computer has irreversibly changed traditional schooling with its ability to retrieve information and reach its potential as an effective tool for instructional services (Abbott 2001). The ICT competency framework for teachers informs stakeholders such as teacher training personnel, policymakers, curriculum developers, and other supporting administrators to integrate ICT in education (UNESCO 2018). Therefore, ICT skills integration and application in technical education can enhance teachers’ effective teaching methods by impacting students’ learning outcomes.

ICT comprises all technologies and services relating to computing, telecommunication provision, data management and the internet (Brown 2020). ICT means the use and application of computers, electronic instruments, data, computer networks and others including hardware and software (UNESCO 2018). In addition, ICT refers to accessibility to information through computers, the internet, cellular phones and other means of communication for societal needs (Ratheeswari 2018). ICT might be considered as an effective instrument for educational reform, departing from traditional teaching approaches (Fu 2013). Therefore, the main pillar of ICT competency framework for teachers is their ability to use a variety of digital teaching instruments and resources (UNESCO 2018).

Technical education refers to formal education delivering vocational courses at secondary education level, particularly in vocational-technical high schools, across a variety of trades. These include mechanics, electronics, electricity, agronomy, animal husbandry, food processing, tourism, ICT, etc. The main purpose of vocational-technical high schools is to equip youth with industrial skills for immediate employment (Joo 2018). Technical education teachers are instructors who teach and major any typical trades such as mechanics or construction at vocational-technical high schools. Technical education teachers play active roles in imparting relevant industrial skills to students (Samuel & Touitou-Tina 2016).

1.2        Research Problem

Teacher quality significantly impacts students’ learning outcomes (Park & Kim 2020). The competency levels of technical education teachers are key elements to ensure education and training quality (ADB 2009). However, there are a limited number of qualified teachers with the ability to teach technical education courses. Poor countries tend to lack rigorous support systems such as ICT skills provision, motivation, coaching and mentoring (Lee 2020). ICT integration into education practices has not been fulfilled because teachers have no opportunity to learn and apply these skills (Ilomäki & Lakkala 2018). Teachers are not proficient in ICT skills, hindering instructional effectiveness to maximise potential (Voelker 2021). Most of the ASEAN member countries encounter skills mismatches and shortages between supply and demand constraints to economic development due to teachers’ limited capacities (ADB 2009). Therefore, it is necessary to equip teacher training programmes with potential qualifications to guide the young generation to become an ICT-based knowledge society (UNESCO 2018).

Industry 4.0 skills disrupt traditional systems everywhere by automatising and robotising human roles to make life more convenient. To support these skills, ICT plays an integral part in communicating and coding data which result in mass production in manufacturing. In addition, technical knowledge transforms the way we work and the way we live. To this end, technical education teachers need to possess technical knowledge to assist instruction and student learning. However, ICT as part of technological knowledge is not widespread enough in teacher knowledge in the ASEAN region – only 39% of people in the ASEAN region learn ICT skills (Voelker 2021). Technical education teachers leave school with a grounding in academic theory after graduating, without having developed necessary skills like ICT (German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development 2015). The number of high school teachers who possess ICT skills is limited (Hakkarainen et al. 2001). Few teachers integrate ICT skills into their instruction either through remote teaching software, e-learning systems or Microsoft Excel (Voelker 2021). Technical education teachers’ ICT skills need to be considered to enhance students’ learning outcomes.

1.3        Research Significance

A competent teacher is a key factor in instilling students’ cognitive skills (Hanushek & Woessmann 2011; Lee 2020). Teachers possessing ICT skills contribute to students’ holistic growth as a self-paced learning approach with the support of ICT skills (Napal, Peñalva-Vélez, & Mendióroz 2018). ICT integration and implementation in education are progressing gradually at schools in the 11 SEAMEO member countries (The HEAD Foundation 2017). The findings from these studies will provide insights for teachers to engage in self-assessment regarding specific skills or possible actions. Teachers will be alerted to using internet-assisted approaches, transitioning from a teacher-centered to a self-directed learning approach (Fu 2013). Support systems such as training programmes, mentoring programmes, motivation, or ICT infrastructure installations are the solution. Teachers’ ICT competencies facilitate students’ high-level thinking skills and creativity (UNESCO 2018). Policymakers are guided functionally on what skills/tasks should be emphasised. The government will be informed and knowledgeable about the ICT equipment and support needed. Budgets to maintain these should be planned and allocated. Curriculum developers will focus accurately on what has been found and communities will be aware of the nature of support which should be provided to help improve teachers’ capacities.

1.4         Research Objectives and Questions

ICT is assistive technology, supporting learning and teaching processes through technological disruption. Enhancing teachers’ ICT skills accelerate students’ learning outcome rates. ICT is a key driver in supporting the use of allocated resources effectively to achieve planned goals (Tjoa & Tjoa 2016). Embedded in vocational education and training courses, ICT can be used to aid artificial intelligence (AI) in mass production (Becker, Spöttl, & Windelband 2022). Teachers’ professional development programmes are a crucial factor in making teachers competent and effective. This research study aims to assess the ICT skills competency levels for technical education teachers from the 11 SEAMEO member countries. The two research questions are as follows:

Research question 1: What are the ICT skills deficiencies of technical education teachers?

Research question 2: What are the ICT skills proficiencies of technical education teachers?

There are three hypotheses for testing:

Hypothesis 1: There are different competency levels of ICT skills between technical education teachers based on gender (male and female).

Hypothesis 2: There are different competency levels of ICT skills among the 11 SEAMEO member countries.

Hypothesis 3: There are different competency levels of ICT skills between the older and younger cohorts in terms of years of work experience.

2        Literature Review on Technical Education Teachers’ ICT Competencies

ICT revolutionises the way we live, the way we work, and the way we communicate globally (Habaradas & Mia 2020). ICT solves almost everything we do and addresses challenges faced by people wanting to work more conveniently. The different competency levels among the 11 SEAMEO member countries in terms of ICT skills are due to their different socio-economic levels. A large number of research studies have been conducted to highlight ICT skills mastery of technical education teachers in the region.

2.1        Technical Education Teachers’ ICT Skills

The ICT competency framework for teachers embraces three levels of skills mastery: knowledge acquisition, knowledge deepening and knowledge creation (UNESCO 2018). Singapore is in the knowledge creation stage, having its own ICT ecosystem that accommodates most of the world-class technology companies that reflect the advancement of ICT skill competencies (Habaradas & Mia 2020). Mundia (2020), investigating the level of technological competence of 109 teachers in Brunei Darussalam, suggested more improvement and effort could be invested in upgrading teachers’ technological skills. Moreover, Timorese teachers are deficient in ICT skills, hindering effective teaching practices (Lopes et al. 2017). The ASEAN ICT master plan 2020 focuses on building ASEAN’s ICT capacities to reach the regional cyber ecosystem.  

A quantitative study of 329 Malaysian technical education teachers to ascertain ICT skills levels in Malaysian teachers found that these teachers possessed a moderate level of ICT skills (Alazam, Bakar, & Asmiran 2012). Another quantitative study explored teachers’ ICT skill levels for integration into their instruction and highlighted a mastery level of ICT skills (Samuel & Zaitun 2007). However, some teachers possess limited ICT skills, hindering their effective instructional skills, even though they have their individual computers (Elstad & Christophersen 2017; Hatlevik et al. 2013). Internet coverage within schools in Thailand is strong, but Thai teachers’ ICT skills are limited as they have yet to adapt to the new situation (Akarawang, Kidrakran, & Nuangchalerm 2015). In addition, a quantitative study in Lao PDR exploring teachers’ ICT proficiency levels, based on 200 Laos teachers, found that their ICT capacities needed further improvement in terms of installing ICT equipment in the classroom, and developing curriculum and training programmes (Thephavongsa & Liu 2018).

2.2        ICT Skills Integration into Instructional Practices

Technological advancements imply major changes in technical education, transitioning from a traditional face-to-face model to a blended mode, impacting productivity and manufacturing (Park & Kim 2020). A quantitative study conducted by Elstad and Christophersen (2017) in Norway on secondary school teachers found that teachers effectively integrated ICT skills into their instructional activities. This qualitative research study shows that teachers can integrate ICT skills into teaching practices as a blended learning approach (Røkenes & Krumsvik 2014). A quantitative research study of 135 Cambodian teachers explored teachers’ attitudes towards ICT integration and found that teachers can integrate the use of ICT into the teaching processes with a high degree of mastery (Hun, Shimizu, & Kao 2020). Htun (2019) examined ICT development in 63 organisations including the private and public sector in Myanmar and found that ICT skills in education were underused and underdeveloped. There are different perspectives related to ICT application in reference to the socio-economic development status of each country.

Another quantitative study from the Philippines in 2015 explored the level of ICT education integration of 383 teachers and showed that ICT integration levels were limited in terms of ICT capacities and ICT tool accessibility (Marcial & Rama 2015). Hue and Ab Jalil (2013) identified ICT integration possibilities for the classroom with 109 Vietnamese teachers, finding that ICT integration was not fully being conducted within the classroom. ICT was seldom used. Lubis et al. (2011), investigating ICT integration into instruction in Brunei Darussalam, noted that teachers’ ICT skill deficiencies presented a barrier to ICT integration. Finally, Chen, Tan, and Lim (2012) used a qualitative study of two Singaporean teachers to examine the level of ICT integration into instruction. Time constraints and curriculum implementation issues were found to affect ICT integration negatively.

2.3        Technical Education Teachers’ Microsoft Excel Skill Competencies

Alazam et al. (2012) explored ICT skill levels of Malaysian teachers and found that Malaysian teachers possessed poor Microsoft Excel skills in relation to their instructional services. Thephavongsa and Liu (2018) found that Laotian teachers had a moderate level of Microsoft Excel skills, yet seldom applied those skills in real-life situations. A quantitative study exploring the Microsoft Excel competency levels of technical education teachers employed descriptive statistics, highlighting the teachers’ limited competence in their application of Microsoft Excel skills (Azih 2016). Kamodi and Garegae (2019) noted teachers’ incompetence using Microsoft Excel skills due to a lack of professional development programmes for teachers. In short, teachers possess varying levels of Microsoft Excel skills depending on the different research designs deployed by different geographical regions.

2.4        Technical Education Teachers’ Internet Skill Competencies

Internet skills are common among students and teachers searching for information, interacting and communicating with each other on social media by using their cellular phones (Voelker 2021). The internet has shifted the traditional face-to-face activities we perform into a virtual mode, transforming industries such as banking, shopping and digital education (Abbott 2001). However, a quantitative study of Malaysian vocational teachers documented their poor level of internet skills (Alazam et al. 2012). Hu, Wong, Cheah, and Wong (2009) surveyed 2,998 Singaporean teachers on internet usage. Teachers and students frequently used e-mail to communicate with each other. In addition, teachers used ICT skills for general purposes such as social media communication (WhatsApp, Facebook, WeChat) as part of internet skills application (Enu et al. 2018).

3        Research Methods

This section describes the processes used to answer research questions scientifically. The process follows this step-by-step procedure:

3.1        Data Collection

Initial data was collected via a questionnaire on ICT needs assessment. Researchers sent letters of consent along with a Google Form to target institutions: 76 vocational-technical high schools/colleges who are members of the 11 Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) network. Member countries asked their technical education teachers to complete the questionnaire in Google Forms. The 11 SEAMEO member countries are: Cambodia, Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor Leste, and Vietnam. In addition, the request was sent out by letter to governing board members of Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Technical Education Development (SEAMEO TED). A representative of the Ministry of Education coordinated this data collection process in the respective countries. Random sampling was used to collect data from the participants. After a period of over one month, researchers had received sufficient samples for analysis as requested by the deadline­­­­­­.

3.2        Participation Selection

5,704 (n=5,704) technical education teacher participants from the 11 SEAMEO member countries completed the Google Forms questionnaire. The larger sample size supports efforts to generalise results and to decrease error size (Beins & McCarthy 2012). To ensure data generalisation with reliability, population heterogeneity with different sexes, geographical areas, academic levels, age cohorts, work experience, marital status, and some selection criteria were considered. The participants were accessed on the basis of criteria including (1) technical education teachers who are teaching any trade at vocational-technical high schools in any of the 11 SEAMEO member countries; and (2) voluntary participation in filling out the questionnaire in Google Forms. When participants volunteer to participate in a research study, they are willing to use the research tool to the best of their capacities (Beins & McCarthy 2012). The vocational-technical high-schools targeted within the organisation afforded access to participants who identified as technical education teachers.  

3.1        Research Instrument

Researchers use the questionnaire in Google Forms adapted from Ramadan, Chen, and Hudson (2018). This meant that content validity was achieved. Content validity refers to a representative of questionnaire items that are measured to achieve pre-determined objectives.

The questionnaire was divided into two sections: (1) ICT skills and (2) demographic information. Questionnaires in Google Forms are far-reaching and widely distributed geographically for more dependable and reliable results (Kothari 2004). The questionnaire had 20 items with a five-point scale for rating. The scale ranges from 1 (strongly incompetent) to 5 (strongly competent). For example, Statement 1 asked about “Producing a text through a word processing programme”. Statement 2 asked about “Using basic word functions”. Statement 20 asked about “I have a social network account (Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, Twitter, etc.)”. The demographic information collected included: sex, country origin, age, graduate major, academic degree, marital status, and teaching experience with years of service. This information corroborated a representative sample.

3.4        Data Analysis

Quantitative methodology was employed to analyse data using SPSS v25. The survey design employed a cross-sectional approach which examines current beliefs or practices at one point in time (Creswell 2012). Descriptive statistics such as means (M) and standard deviations (SD) were used to answer pre-identified research questions. To confirm the results of the two research questions, Harman’s single factor test was employed with a magnitude of inter-item correlation within the same construct/factor identified.

3.5        Results

The results emerged from data analysis using SPSS v25 after participants filled out the questionnaire. The 20-item scale reported a reliability Cronbach Alpha of α= 0.977. This meant that the degree was excellent for internal consistency within the scale of all items for further analysis. A reliability coefficient of up to 0.7 is sufficient, whereas a coefficient over 0.9 is considered very satisfactory (Howitt & Cramer 2011).

3.5.1       Demographic Information

The demographic information captured identifying factors of a population to better understand the particular background of the participants. On gender, 37.9% were male, and 62.1% were female. Therefore, the study was female-dominated. The study covered the 11 SEAMEO member countries. The participant-dominated countries in terms of number are Malaysia (80%) and the Philippines (16.8%). Participants’ ages were divided into eight cohorts with their frequencies and percentages. The table highlights a decreasing number of participants based on age from younger to older. It means that the majority of participants from one group (24%) were below 30 years of age. Technical education teachers have earned four types of academic degrees ranging from an associate degree to a doctoral degree. Of the respondents, 81% of participants earned a bachelor’s degree, the standard qualification for becoming a teacher. Technical education teachers’ work experiences, based on years of service, were categorised by cohorts. Young teachers were in the majority. Their cohort, with fewer than 5 years of service, amounted to 32%. This result was consistent with results in a majority of participants’ ages – 24% were below 30 years old. On marital status, 79.7% were married, even though a majority of the participants were young in age.

3.5.2       Major Findings

The major findings related to the pre-identified two research questions: “What are the ICT skills deficiencies of technical education teachers?” and “What are the ICT skills proficiencies of technical education teachers?”. Table 1 specified the number of total participants, means, and standard deviations providing insights for the two research questions. The answers to research question 1 were as follows: ability to use Microsoft Excel to create a database (M=3.19) and (SD=0.875); ease of use in Microsoft Excel (M=3.51) and (SD=0.806); use of Microsoft Excel tools to add up totals on a spreadsheet (M=3.48) and (SD=0.870); and ability to enter numerical data into cells (M=3.60) and (SD=0.853). The answers to research question 2 were as follows: ability to copy and move files into different folders for storage (M=4.01) and (SD=0.844); logging onto the internet (M=4.01) and (SD=0.817); creating, sending and receiving e-mails (M=4.03) and (SD=0.829); adding an attachment to an e-mail (M=4.03) and (SD=0.844); and searching for information using search engines such as Google (M=4.05) and (SD=0.806). Technical education teachers in the 11 SEAMEO member countries have moderate Microsoft Excel skills, but good internet skills.

Tablle 1: ICT Skills Mean and Standard Deviation

To verify the aforementioned findings, the convergent validity to measure the same construct of correlations at the moderate level of magnitude was used (Kline 2011). The single factor test was employed to check the level of magnitude for both factors identified (Microsoft Excel and internet skills). The outcomes of Harman’s single factor test reflected the same scale items each with their common factor of inter-item correlations, which were more than moderate in magnitude, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Inter-Item Correlation in Magnitude

3.5.3       Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis 1: There are different competency levels of ICT skills between technical education teachers’ genders (male and female).

To test hypothesis 1, an independent sample t-test was used, as shown in Table 3. It reflected
t (5,702) =-7.719, p=.000<.05 meaning that it was statistically significant. The result meant that the alternative hypothesis was true, which allowed the study to reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, there are different competency levels of ICT skills between technical education teachers’ genders (male and female).

Table 3: Independent Sample t-test Results

Hypothesis 2: There are different competency levels of ICT skills among the 11 SEAMEO member countries.

To test hypothesis 2, one-way ANOVA was used as shown in Table 4. The results reflected F (9, 5,694) =7.003, p=.000<.005 meaning that it was statistically significant, so our research was able to reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, there are different competency levels of ICT skills between the 11 SEAMEO member countries.

Table 4: One-Way ANOVA Results

Hypothesis 3: There are different competency levels of ICT skills between the cohorts in terms of years of work experience.

To test hypothesis 3, one-way ANOVA was used as shown in Table 5. The results reflected F (4, 5,699) =122.694, p=.000<.05, meaning that the alternative hypothesis was accepted. Therefore, there are different competency levels of ICT skills between the cohorts in terms of participants’ years of experience.

Table 5: One-Way ANOVA Results

4        Discussion and Conclusion

The findings suggest that technical education teachers have moderate Microsoft Excel skills, but good internet skills. The internet transforms all areas of life, underscoring socio-economic development and growth towards the digital economy (ASEAN Secretariat 2015). In line with Hypothesis 2, “There are different competency levels of ICT skills among the 11 SEAMEO member countries.” Mia and Habaradas (2020) highlighted the different levels of ICT skill competency as follows: Singapore, Brunei, and Malaysia in an achieving stage; Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines in a bridging stage; and Cambodia, Myanmar, and Lao PDR in a nascent stage. Technical education teachers have different ICT skill levels in terms of demographic and geographical characteristics in Malaysia (Alazam et al. 2012). Regional and national policies or strategies support ICT integration following published results ensure that teachers’ ICT competency levels influence their instructional effectiveness (Elstad & Christophersen 2017). For example, a quantitative study assessing the ICT skills needs of Cambodian teachers found that teachers possessed moderate levels of Excel and internet skills (Men 2021). This might be due to different contexts of ICT policies and support systems from country to country.

The results were consistent with previous literature. There were different ICT skills levels among genders and degrees of work experience for Cambodian teachers (Hun et al. 2020). Teachers possess moderate levels of ICT skills for educational integration (Ersoy, Yurdakul, & Ceylan 2016). Indonesian teachers have good internet skills to support instruction (Maryuningsih et al. 2020). Technical education teachers have good Microsoft Excel skills and internet skills (Saripudin et al. 2020). This means that some literature supports the findings that offer a regional perspective in terms of teachers’ ICT competency levels. Therefore, the results might be applicable to regional needs because different countries have their individual ICT supporting systems and frameworks to successfully transition to IR 4.0 skills for teachers.

There are some limitations to consider regarding data generalisation. Although the sample size was especially large for statistical analyses, 80% of the participants are Malaysian teachers, dominating the research study in terms of geographical characteristics. Future research should aim to include more participants from other SEAMEO member countries such as Singapore, Lao PDR, Timor Teste, Indonesia, and Cambodia. Additionally, 42.5% of the participants are under the age of 35. It was consistent with participants’ years of work experience (less than 5 years), represented by 32% of the total participants, so most of the research participants were relatively young. The sample was limited to demographic characteristics. Future research should be undertaken to target older participants to reach a representative sample.

Professional development programmes for technical education teachers, in cooperation with industries providing them with an incentive for active engagement, are recommended. To actualise ICT skills, teachers should link ICT policy directives with the reality of what is currently being implemented in the classroom (UNESCO 2018). A training course on Microsoft Excel should be conducted for technical education teachers by linking lessons learned to work setting needs (Ramadan et al. 2018). Access to digital devices, ICT infrastructure, and teachers’ ICT skills should be enhanced (Voelker 2021). Vocational-technical high schools should have full-scale autonomy in decision-making for their staff’s professional development programmes in terms of budget allocation and management, and cooperation with industries (ADB 2009). ICT skills should be integrated into the curriculum and incorporated into teaching methods, assessment processes, lesson plans, and hand-on activities to create an ICT user-friendly environment (UNESCO 2018). Curriculum modifications and ICT environmental supports should be encouraged to enhance effective ICT integration (Chen et al. 2012). Therefore, it is necessary to examine other factors which can support professional development programmes: ICT infrastructure, high expertise of trainers, internet availability, diversity of training approaches, and motivational systems to influence teachers’ capacities in a positive way.

Skills development is a catalyst to raise productivity and reduce poverty as the right skills are important ingredients for economic development (ADB 2009). With the hope of using and integrating ICT skills into education, the basis of the inclusive knowledge society will be shaped (The HEAD Foundation 2017). Through ICT integration, students from different socio-economic backgrounds and capacities are provided with remedial actions to ensure inclusion with transformative learning approaches (UNESCO 2018). Therefore, the vision of the ASEAN ICT masterplan 2020 will drive ASEAN towards the digital economy and transformation. Sustainability for an inclusive, integrated and innovative ASEAN community will become attainable (ASEAN Secretariat 2020).

References

Abbott, C. (2001). ICT: Changing education. New York: Routledge Falmer.

ADB. (2009). Good practice in technical and vocational education and training. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank. Online: Good Practice in Technical and Vocational Education and Training | Asian Development Bank (adb.org) (retrieved 06.11.2022).

Akarawang, C., Kidrakran, P., & Nuangchalerm, P. (2015). Enhancing ICT competency for teachers in the Thailand basic education system. In: International Education Studies, 8, 6, 1-8.

Alazam, A. O., Bakar, A. R., Hamzah, R., & Asmiran, S. (2012). Teachers’ ICT skills and ICT integration in the classroom: The case of vocational and technical teachers in Malaysia. In: Creative Education, 3, 8, 70-76.

ASEAN Secretariat. (2015). The ASEAN ICT Masterplan 2020. Jakarta: Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Online: Final Review of ASEAN ICT Masterplan 2020 – ASEAN Main Portal (retrieved 05.11.2022).

Azih, N. (2016). Microsoft access and Microsoft Excel skills needed by office technology and management lecturers for quality service delivery. In: International Journal of Business and Social Science, 7, 5, 193-199.

Beins, B. C. & McCarthy, M. A. (2012). Research methods and statistics. New Jersey: Pearson.

Becker, M., Spöttl, G., & Windelband, L. (2022). The role of artificial intelligence in skilled work and consequences for vocational training. In: TVET@Asia, issue 19, 1-15. Online: The role of artificial intelligence in skilled work and consequences for vocational training | TVET@Asia (tvet-online.asia) (retrieved 06.11.2022).

Brown, T. (2020). The importance of information and communication technology (ICT). Mississauga: IT Chronicles Media. Online: https://itchronicles.com/information-and-communication-technology/the-importance-of-information-and-communication-technology-ict/ (retrieved 10.10.2022).

Chen, W., Tan, A., & Lim, C. (2012). Extrinsic and intrinsic barriers in the use of ICT in teaching: A comparative case study in Singapore. In Brown, M., Hartnett, M., & Stewart, T. (eds.): Future challenges, sustainable futures. Proceedings ascilite Wellington 2012, 191-196.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4^th ed.) Boston: Pearson.

Elstad, E. & Christophersen, K. A. (2017). Perceptions of Digital Competency among Student Teachers: Contributing to the Development of Student Teachers’ Instructional Self-Efficacy in Technology-Rich Classrooms. In: Education Sciences, 7, 1, 1-15.

Enu, J., Nkum, D., Ninsin, E., Diabor, C. A., & Korsah, D. P. (2018). Teachers’ ICT skills and ICT usage in the classroom: The case of basic school teachers in Ghana. In: Journal of Education and Practice, 9, 20, 35-38.

Ersoy, M., Yurdakul, I. K., & Ceylan, B. (2016). Investigating preservice teachers’ TPACK competencies through the lenses of ICT skills: An experimental study. In: Education & Science, 41, 186, 119-135.

Fu, J. (2013). ICT in education: A critical literature review and its implications. In: International Journal of Education and Development Using ICT, 9, 1, 112-125.

German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2015). Technical and Vocational Education and Training in the ASEAN Region Sustainable Growth through Regional Networking. Bonn: BMZ.

Habaradas, R. B. & Mia, B. R. (2020). ASEAN ICT developments: Current state, challenges, and what they mean for SMEs. In: Philippine Academy of Management E-Journal, 3, 1, 37-50.

Hakkarainen, K., Muukonen, H., Lipponen, L., Ilomäki, L., Rahikainen, M., & Lehtinen, E. (2001). Teachers’ information and communication technology (ICT) skills and practices of using ICT. In: Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 9, 2, 181-197.

Hanushek, E. A. & Woessmann, L. (2011). The economics of international differences in education achievement. In: Handbook of Education Economics, 3, 2, 89-200.

Hatlevik, O. E, Egeberg, G., Gudmundsdottir, G. B, Loftsgaarden, M., & Loi, M. (2013). Monitor Skole: Om digital kompetanse og erfaringer med bruk av IKT i skolen. Utdanningen: Senter for IKT I.

Howitt, D. & Cramer, D. (2011). Introduction to statistics in psychology (5^th ed.). Harlow: Pearson.

Htun, K. S. (2019). An investigation of ICT development in Myanmar. In: The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 85, 2, 1-19.

Hu, C., Wong, A. F., Cheah, H. M., & Wong, P. (2009). Patterns of email use by teachers and implications: A Singapore experience. In: Computers & Education, 53, 3, 623-631.

Hue, L. T. & Ab Jalil, H. (2013). Attitudes towards ICT integration into curriculum and usage among university lecturers in Vietnam. In: International Journal of Instruction, 6, 2, 53-66.

Hun, R., Shimizu, K., & Kao, S. (2020). Cambodian teacher educators’ attitudes towards the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in education: Trends and patterns. In: Journal of International Development and Cooperation, 27, 1, 1-15.

Ilomäki, L. & Lakkala, M. (2018). Digital technology and practices for school improvement: innovative digital school model. In: Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 13, 1, 1-32.

Joo, L. (2018). Vol. 2: The excellence of technical vocational education and training (TVET) institutions in Korea: Case study on Busan national Mechanical Technical High School. In: International Education Studies, 11, 11, 69-87.

Kamodi, T. L. & Garegae, K. G. (2019). Teachers’ perceptions on use of Microsoft excel in teaching and learning of selected concepts in junior secondary school mathematics syllabus in Botswana. In: Lonaka JoLT, 10, 1, 67-81.

Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3^rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Delhi: New Age International.

Lee, J. W. (2020). Human capital development in South Asia. In Panth, B. & Maclean, R. (eds.): Anticipating and Preparing for Emerging Skills and Jobs. Education in the Asia-Pacific Region: Issues, Concerns and Prospects. Singapore: Springer, 33-39.

Lopes, B., Lucas, M., Albergaria-Almeida, P., & Martinho, M. (2017). Training Timorese science teachers in the context of international cooperation: What role could ICT play? In: Conexão Ciência, 12, 416-423.

Lubis, M. A., Lampoh, A. A., Yunus, M. M., Shahar, S. N., Ishak, N. M., & Muhamad, T. A. (2011). The use of ICT in teaching Islamic subjects in Brunei Darussalam. In: International Journal of Education and Information Technologies, 5, 1, 79-87.

Marcial, D. E. & Rama, P. A. (2015). ICT competency level of teacher education professionals in the Central Visayas Region, Philippines. In: Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3, 5, 28-38.

Maryuningsih, Y., Hidayat, T., Riandi, R., & Rustaman, N. Y. (2020). Profile of information and communication technologies (ICT) skills of prospective teachers. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521, 1-7. Online: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/4/042009 (retrieved 07.11.2022).

Men, S. (2021). Assessing information and communication technology skills need analysis of lower secondary school teachers in Moung Ruessey district Battambang Province [Master’s Thesis]. Phnom Penh: National Institute of Education.

Mundia, L. (2020). Assessment of skills development in Brunei trainee teachers: Intervention implications. In: European Journal of Educational Research, 9, 2, 685-698.

Napal, F. M., Peñalva-Vélez, A., & Mendióroz, L. A. M. (2018). Development of digital competence in secondary education teachers’ training. In: Education Sciences, 8, 3, 1-12.

Park, C. Y. & Kim, J. (2020). Education, Skill Training, and Lifelong Learning in the Era of Technological Revolution. In: ADB Economics Working Paper Series, 606. Manila: ADB.

Ramadan, A., Chen, Z., & Hudson, L. L. (2018). Teachers’ skills and ICT integration in technical and vocational education and training TVET: A case of Khartoum state-Sudan. In: World Journal of Education, 8, 3, 31-43.

Ratheeswari, K. (2018). Information communication technology in education. In: Journal of Applied and Advanced Research, 3, 1, 45-47.

Røkenes, F. M. & Krumsvik, R. J. (2014). Development of student teachers’ digital competence in teacher education – A literature review. In: Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy, 9, 04, 250-280.

Samuel, O. G., Caleb, E. E., & Touitou-Tina, C. (2016). The Technical Teacher, Teaching and Technology: Grappling with the Internationalization of Education in Nigeria. In: International Journal of Scientific Research in Science and Technology, 2, 4, 259-265.

Samuel, R. J. & Zaitun, A. B. (2007). Do teachers have adequate ICT resources and the right ICT skills in integrating ICT tools in the teaching and learning of English language in Malaysian schools? In: The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 29, 1, 1-15.

Saripudin, S., Sumarto, S., Junala, E. A., Abdullah, A. G., & Ana, A. (2020). Integration of ICT skill among vocational school teachers: A case in west Java, Indonesia. In: International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 9, 5, 251-260.

The HEAD Foundation. (2017). ICT in ASEAN Education: Challenges and New Opportunities. THF Policy Brief No. 2. Singapore: The HEAD Foundation.

Thephavongsa, S. & Liu, Q. (2018). Exploring the ICT Proficiency Level among Primary and Secondary School Teachers in Lao PDR. In Ermolayev et al. (eds.): ICT in Education, Research, and Industrial Applications. Proc. 14th Int. Conf. ICTERI 2018. Volume I: Main Conference, 405-416.

Tjoa, A. M. & Tjoa, S. (2016). The role of ICT to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). In Mata, F. & Pont, A. (eds.): WITFOR 2016: ICT for Promoting Human Development and Protecting the Environment. Cham: Springer, 3-13.

UNESCO. (2018). ICT competency framework for teachers. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Online: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265721 (retrieved 02.12.2022).

Voelker, M. (2021). Digital literacy in education systems across ASEAN: Key insights and opinions of young people. Bangkok: UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office.