In order to integrate practical and work-orientated teaching-learning concepts into commercial vocational education and training courses, the use of simulations is recommended, especially at full-time vocational schools. In Germany, the use of business case studies has also been discussed and recommended for many years. Against this background, it is surprising that there are hardly any empirical findings on the use and impact of these case studies in German commercial schools. This study, therefore, addresses this research gap and focuses on the student perspective in commercial education in the German vocational education and training system. 

A total of 305 online-questionnaires from students at different vocational schools in the German states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, from the commercial-administrative sector, were included in the evaluation. In the questionnaire, the areas of student knowledge in relation to case studies, frequency of use of the case study method, perception of the achievement of the intended didactic goals and the development of student interest in the use of the method, were determined. 

The findings show that only about half of the students surveyed at the commercial schools, have had experience with case studies. However, the findings also show that the use of case studies was perceived positively by the students surveyed. The students were particularly positive regarding the promotion of independence to plan their own learning process through the use of case studies. In addition, the data collected could empirically prove that a high situational interest of the students, and the perceived motivation when working with case studies, correlate positively with each other. 

Keywords: case study, vocational education, Germany, student perspective, didactic goal achievement, interest, practical relevance 

1 Introduction 

In Germany, business cases are considered to be a teaching-learning instrument which is particularly suitable for promoting vocational competence and ensuring practice-orientated training, not only in higher education, but also in vocational education and training (VET). Although the usefulness of case studies as a teaching method has been extensively reported in the literature for several decades (see below), the present state of research is insufficient to answer the question of the current relevance of case studies in the teaching practice of vocational schools. In addition, the few research findings in the field of VET are mainly limited to the perceptions of teachers, and only rarely examine the perspective of students. This study therefore addresses this research gap and focuses on the student perspective in commercial education in the German VET system. 

2 Theoretical background 

Before presenting the existing research findings below, it is important to define the concept of ‘business cases’ more precisely, because in many cases there is a misunderstanding in classroom practice between smaller cases (e.g., in the sense of examples) and genuine case studies. 

In this study, ‘business case studies’ refers to a teaching-learning method from management studies. The case study was already developed around 1908 at the Harvard Business School (Herreid 2011, 31) and has also been used in teaching at commercial vocational schools over the last few decades (Pilz 2001; 2013). Business case studies represent decision-making exercises based on complex, realistic situations from professional and working life (Mauffette-Leenders et al. 2005, 9). Therefore, business cases are often described in the literature as being close to professional practice and are thus closely related to work-oriented learning. We understand work-oriented learning here in line with the definition by Schröder and Dehnbostel which is based on former descriptions by the German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, as follows: “In work-oriented learning, there is no direct connection between the place of learning to the place of work. In institutionalised learning places, however, subject content-oriented references to work are included in the curriculum. As special institutions in the education system, training firms, learning offices and production schools are also oriented in a holistic way to work content and environments. In addition, the simulation of work outside of work takes place in reality-oriented models at different locations” (2021, 6). 

Business case studies are simulations and belong to the student-active teaching-learning methods, that combine theory and practice by applying already existing knowledge to realistic cases, or by learning various competencies through the case study itself (Huckvale & Van Riper 2019). According to Reetz, case studies are “teaching materials in which real events or events corresponding to reality in social, especially economic, life are processed into a case and which also contain teaching-learning aids for solving the case” (1988, 38). The central didactic reference points in case studies are the handling of complex economic situation and the collective search for problem decisions (Pilz 2001). In concrete terms, a complex economic problem situation is described by the case study authors to the students, often based on a practical example and supplemented by additional information material such as balance sheets, sales figures, strategy papers, etc. of the company in focus. Examples of case studies can be found on the webpage of a European project (https://e3cases.uni-koeln.de/en/results/case-studies) including a guideline explaining how to write business cases (https://e3cases.uni-koeln.de/en/results/manual). The students then deal with the case in the following phases: 1. confrontation with the case; 2. information about the case material provided and by independently finding sources of information; 3. exploration: discussion of alternative solutions; 4. resolution: decision-making in groups; 5. disputation: the individual groups defend their decision; 6. collation: comparison of the group solutions with the decision made in reality (Pilz et al. 2013). In terms of self-reliant learning, the teacher here takes a passive role in the teaching process, which is often described in the literature as “facilitator” or “learning consultant” (Pilz & Zenner 2018, 332). These brief descriptions already show that business cases clearly belong to the definition of work-oriented learning. Furthermore, Schröder and Dehnbostel explicitly point out that this form of learning also explicitly addresses “Vocational learning in schools” (2021, 7) with regard to the learning venues in addition to universities. 

In the literature, one can find a variety of didactic goals that may be realised through the use of case studies, where in addition to the teaching of self and social competencies through self-reliant lIn the literature, one can find a variety of didactic goals that may be realised through the use of case studies, where in addition to the teaching of self and social competencies through self-reliant learning, the proximity to professional practice and real-life situations is of great value (cf. for example Adler et al. 2004; Dorta-Afonso 2019; He 2015; Marsick 2004; Mauffette-Leenders et al. 2005; Meinhard & Pilz 2016; Pilz 2013; Pilz et al. 2013; Schmidt 2010; Tögel, Faßbender, & Pilz 2021): 

• Practical training: Through realistic problem situations from everyday work, case studies can help prepare students for action in professional and working life. 
• Motivation: The realistic design of the case study encourages students to actively engage with the case situation. 
• Knowledge acquisition and application: Knowledge is acquired through practical situations, and theoretical concepts are applied under the conditions of practice. 
• Communication and conflict skills: If the case study is solved in the social form of group work, the students’ communication skills can also be improved. They also learn how to deal with the opinions and criticism of their classmates and how to resolve any conflicts that arise. During the presentation of the results, the students can practice their presentation and argumentation skills. 
• Independence: In case studies, students can plan their own learning process and learn to take responsibility for it. 
• Problem-solving and decision-making skills: The core of the case study consists of a complex, realistic problem situation from professional and working life, on the basis of which the students are to develop, discuss and select alternative solutions:
  • Students learn to recognise and analyse the problems outlined. 
  • They independently obtain information or analyse given information that is relevant for decision-making. 
  • Based on the information obtained, the students develop different alternative solutions and evaluate them. 
  • With the help of the evaluated solution options, the students make a well-founded decision in favour of a solution. 
• Creativity: Due to the openness of the solution in classic case studies, students can bring different ideas into the solution process. The solution can be presented in different ways, for example a power point presentation, but also a role play would be conceivable. 
• Interconnected thinking: The underlying case situation is complex and often cross-curricular, enabling the acquisition of knowledge from different fields. The students learn to recognise factual connections and to think in networked structures. 

Against the background of the didactic potentials listed here, it is not surprising that the curricula of the German VET colleges allow the use of business cases and that this use has also been recommended in teacher training for years (Kaiser 1983; Pilz 2001). 

3 State of research 

One of the best-known studies on the use of teaching-learning methods in vocational education in German-speaking countries, was provided by Pätzold et al. (2003). In the commercial-administrative field, teachers and students were asked about the frequency of use, and the time required, for different teaching-learning instruments. In addition, teachers were asked about the intended didactic goals when using complex teaching-learning methods. Overall, the study was able to determine that frontal teaching and incorporating questioning dominates, and action-orientated teaching-learning is used rather rarely, and with a supplementary function (ibid., 141). Of the students who participated in the study, 17% stated that case studies are used in many lessons, and 23.2% in some lessons. Only 34.4% of the students surveyed expressed having no experience at all with case studies (rest only very limited experience). However, the researchers emphasise that it is unclear whether the respondents really meant case studies or only examples based on small cases (ibid., 158). 

According to the teachers, the case study is particularly suitable for applying knowledge and problem-solving skills to real-life situations. The method promotes students’ independence, teamwork skills and work motivation. In addition, the use of case studies makes it possible to build up complex expert knowledge (ibid., 160). This last point was also confirmed in a study by Pilz in 2001, which showed that the use of case studies promoted networked thinking among full-time vocational students (Pilz 2001, 197). In addition, teachers praised the possibility of applying knowledge in practical situations (Pätzold et al. 2003, 160). This was also confirmed in a recent survey; according to which, from the point of view of teachers, case studies are better suited than frontal teaching for practicing and applying certain learning contents with a high practical content (Arndt and Pilz 2020, 52). 

Studies by Hidi and Renninger have shown that certain learning environments, such as group work and work on the computer, can trigger situational interest. They also found that situational interest has a positive effect on students’ cognitive performance. According to this, situational interest focuses attention, enables the integration of information into existing prior knowledge, and increases the overall learning level of students (Hidi and Renninger 2006, 113.). 

4 Research questions 

The purpose of this survey was to investigate the following research questions by integrating existing research findings and research gaps. 

4.1 Experience with case studies 

The case study method is based on real situations from working life (Mauffette-Leenders, Erskine and Leenders 2005, 9). This practical relevance is intended to help prepare students for action in professional and working life. In this respect, we understand work-related learning as a form that is oriented as closely as possible to the business processes of reality in commercial professions and includes the elements of planning, implementing and controlling (Pilz and Fürstenau 2019). Especially for students in full-time vocational education, who do not go through major practical training phases, the case study can be a particularly important method in the classroom. 

Q 1: Do students in part-time education have more experience with the teaching-learning method case study than students in full-time education? 

In Germany, educational policy is the responsibility of the individual states. Thus, different curricula exist for the educational programmes (except for vocational school within the dual education apprenticeship system) in the states studied. 

An exemplary comparison of the curricula for the occupation-related learning area in the vocational school for business and administration from Lower Saxony and from North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) has shown that in both guidelines, an action orientation of teaching is recommended (Lower Saxony Ministry of Education 2010, 1; Ministry for School and Further Education of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia 2015, 17). In both curricula, however, no examples of action-orientated teaching-learning methods are given. In comparison, the curriculum of NRW illustrates the concept of action orientation in more detail, by suggesting the use of a model company, and the use of learning situations that depict work and business processes of the department (Ministry of School and Further Education of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia 2015). In the elaboration of the federal state of Lower Saxony, the concept is not presented in much detail. 

Q 2: Are there quantitative differences in student experience of dealing with the case studies teaching-learning method in vocational school or in the other educational courses between students from NRW or Lower Saxony? 

4.2 Frequency of use 

The use of action-orientated teaching methods is often neglected in practice. Frontal teaching plays the dominant role in the instructional design of business lessons at vocational schools, regardless of the underlying learning content (Guo and Pilz 2020; Pilz and Gronowski 2020).  

In this respect, it is necessary to investigate how the frequency of use of case studies at vocational schools is perceived from the students’ perspective. 

Q 3: How frequently is the case study teaching-learning method currently used in business classes from the students’ perspective? 

4.3 Goal Attainment 

The question of which goals the use of case studies is suitable for, is only answered from the teacher’s perspective in studies conducted in Germany to date. According to the study by Pätzold et al., the development of contextual knowledge and the promotion of problem-solving skills are a primary goal of this teaching-learning method. Furthermore, the teachers are of the opinion that the use of case studies can strengthen the independence, teamwork and work motivation of students. In addition, teachers praise the possibility of applying knowledge to practical situations (Pätzold et al. 2003, 160). This has also been confirmed in a recent survey; according to which, from the point of view of the teachers, case studies are better suited than frontal teaching for practicing and applying certain learning content (Arndt and Pilz 2020, 52). According to the study by Pätzold et al. (2003, 160), teachers feel that the case study method is not suitable for coping with the wealth of material in the curriculum and for adapting the learning process to individual students. 

While previous research has primarily examined the achievement of objectives from the perspective of teachers, this survey will examine students’ perceptions of didactic objectives. The following research question will be answered: 

Q 4: From the students’ point of view, to what extent are several didactic goals achieved?  

4.4 Interest 

First, the relationship between case study use and situational interest will be analysed with the help of the data collected. To this end, the following research question will be answered: 

Q 5: To what extent are case study use, and students’ situational interest, connected to each other? 

Developing the student’s interest is of particular importance, because interest, as a component of intrinsic motivation, influences the students’ ways of working (Deci and Ryan 1987, 28). This means that the level of interest determines how students deal with the object of interest. Referring to a compilation of different study results by Hidi and Renninger (2006, 111), interest has an influence on students’ attention, goals, and learning levels. This can have a positive effect on the intrinsic motivation of learners (Ferdinand 2014, 41). This relationship is examined in more detail by analysing the correlation between high situational interest of students, and perceived motivation when working with case studies. 

The first phase of the interest model according to Hidi and Renninger (2006, 121), the “situational interest,” can be triggered by didactic measures in the classroom. In order to investigate the influence of case study design criteria on students’ situational interest, this study will examine the following research question in more detail: 

Q 6: To what extent do other design criteria correlate positively with situational interest? 

5 Method, sampling and data analysis 

5.1 Questionnaire development 

To answer the research questions, a standardised online questionnaire was developed using the LimeSurvey tool. The questionnaire comprised a total of 27 items, so that the processing time is about 20 minutes. 

The items of the questionnaire were divided into three sub-areas: Personal questions, experience with case studies, and interest in case studies. The first part asks for socio-demographic data such as gender, state, and educational programme attended. The second part of the questionnaire measures students’ experiences with the case study teaching-learning method. This part examines how often the case study is used in the classroom and how the students perceive the achievement of the intended didactic goals. This part of the questionnaire is based on the survey of Pätzold et al. (2003). In the last part, the effect of case studies on students’ situational interest is empirically surveyed. To survey task-related situational interest, items were used to measure both method interest and the subjective significance of the case study topic for the students’ present and future. Ferdinand’s (2014) meaningfulness experience scale, and Tauer and Harackiewicz’s (1999) task enjoyment scale, were used to construct this subdomain. In addition, three self-designed items were added to capture student attitudes towards selected design criteria of case studies. These items measure the processing time of case studies, the effect of the group work phase and the amount of enclosed materials, on students. 

The items measuring the achievement of didactic goals and the effect on situational interest, are answered with a four-point Likert-type response scale from “always agree” to “disagree,” there is also the option of selecting “no answer” if the students surveyed are unable to assess the item, following Pätzold et al. (2003). 

Prior to use, the questionnaire used was checked in a pre-test and by an expert, for comprehensibility and processing time, and further developed. 

A large sample size was expected from the online questionnaire, as the target group has a particularly high online affinity, and the survey method allows geographically dispersed students to be interviewed (Lefever, Dal and Matthíasdóttir 2007, 574). Due to the pandemic situation prevailing at the time of data collection, this research design was also highly suitable (Barchard and Williams 2008, 1125). The survey was conducted anonymously so that the students, in their role as evaluators of the case study method, had no inhibitions about giving their honest opinions. 

5.2 Sample 

The survey was conducted with students in various educational programmes of vocational schools in NRW and Lower Saxony. For this purpose, 20 principals of vocational schools in NRW and 28 principals in Lower Saxony were personally asked by letter to agree to the planned data collection; 381 questionnaires were processed by the surveyed students from vocational schools in NRW and Lower Saxony. 

This corresponds to a response rate of 45.8%. Due to the anonymous nature of the survey, it was not possible to check whether all schools that gave their consent also participated, and how many of the students surveyed belonged to which school. 

5.3 Data analysis 

A total of 76 questionnaires were excluded from the data evaluation. Of these, 74 students had not answered the item about the existence of experience regarding the use of case studies. In the item the definition of case studies was built in, which is central for the further completion of the questionnaire. Due to the limited methodological knowledge of students, this definition cannot be dispensed with. For future uses of the questionnaire, a shortening of the definition or its integration into the instructions of the questionnaire, can be considered. 

Descriptive statistical tools were used to illustrate the data collected. To analyse the relationships between individual variables, scales were formed and examined for significant correlations. The correlation coefficients, and the associated significance values, were calculated using the statistical programme JASP 0.14.1.0. 

6 Results 

6.1 Knowledge 

Of the total 305 students surveyed, 151 students (49.51%) reported no knowledge of the use of case studies. In the study by Pätzold et al. (2003, 158) only 34.4% of the students surveyed indicated no experience with case studies. This difference is large at first glance, but must be put into perspective, as Pätzold et al. (2003, 158) stated, that the definition used was not unique and also included less complex case method. 

Research Question Q 1: 

First, we determined the absolute and relative frequencies of how many students in part-time education courses reported experience with the use of case studies. Among the education programmes studied, part-time education programmes included the vocational school part of dual apprenticeship programmes. Overall, 55.76% of students in part-time education programmes indicated experience with case studies. Full-time education programmes include preparatory training or entry-level vocational school, vocational high school, and vocational college (for German vocational school types, see Fürstenau, Pilz and Gonon 2014; Hippach-Schneider and Huismann 2016). In comparison, 37.50% of students in full-time school-based educational programmes reported case study experience. 

Research question Q2: 

A comparison of the two federal states, revealed that 51.81% of the participating students in NRW reported experience with the use of case studies, while in Lower Saxony the figure was 48.21%. Accordingly, at first glance, no remarkable differences can be identified; however, when looking at vocational school students separately from the other educational programmes, it was found that 53.38% of vocational school students who were part of the apprenticeship programme in NRW and 56.07% in Lower Saxony indicated experience with case studies. This similarity was to be expected, since in both NRW and Lower Saxony, vocational school curricula for the apprenticeship programme is based on the Kultusminister Konferenz (KMK, The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany) nationwide framework curricula (Pilz and Fürstenau 2019).  

In the other full-time vocational courses, 48.33% of students in NRW reported experience with case studies. In Lower Saxony, this value is significantly lower at 36.96%. This result could be expected based on the exemplary analysis of the different curricula of the full-time vocational school type called “Berufsfachschule” (Vocational school at upper secondary level offering a wide range of branches and courses of varying duration, KMK) in both states. 

6.2 Frequency of use 

Research Question Q3: 

The collected student responses about the frequency of use of case studies in business classes are shown in Figure 1. 

The data series is right skewed. This means that characteristic values with low or medium frequencies of use are relatively frequent. Most respondents selected that case studies are used only in some lessons of business and administration teaching. Since the case study teaching-learning method requires an intensive preparation on the part of the teachers, the result is nevertheless to be regarded as positive, since use in some lessons is thus high at approximately 20-50%. Due to the significant scattering of the data, an exact answer to the research question F 2.1 is not possible. 

6.3 Achievement of the intended goals 

Research Question Q 4: 

The items collected were assigned to the four sub-competencies of action competence: professional, social, personal and methodological competence. The items of each sub-competency were aggregated in order to compare student perceptions of achievement of the different sub-competencies. 

6.3.1 Professional competence 

The items on conceptual knowledge acquisition and knowledge application were aggregated to form a Likert scale for assessing subject matter competence. When aggregating the two items, a medium agreement of the students on the achievement of the didactic goals related to subject competence can be observed (M=2.89; SD=0.55). Comparing the individual items, it can be seen that agreement tends to be higher for the item on knowledge application (M=3.06; SD=0.69) than for the item on the development of conceptual knowledge (M=2.73; SD=0.68). The student perception that case studies are better suited for learning how to apply knowledge than for elaborating conceptual knowledge, confirms the results of the teacher survey by Arndt and Pilz (2020). According to this, teachers see case studies as having an advantage over traditional lessons in terms of both knowledge acquisition and knowledge application, with knowledge application also tending to be rated higher by teachers than knowledge acquisition (Arndt and Pilz 2020, 52) ibid., 52The items on conceptual knowledge acquisition and knowledge application were aggregated to form a Likert scale for assessing subject matter competence. When aggregating the two items, a medium agreement of the students on the achievement of the didactic goals related to subject competence can be observed (M=2.89; SD=0.55). Comparing the individual items, it can be seen that agreement tends to be higher for the item on knowledge application (M=3.06; SD=0.69) than for the item on the development of conceptual knowledge (M=2.73; SD=0.68). The student perception that case studies are better suited for learning how to apply knowledge than for elaborating conceptual knowledge, confirms the results of the teacher survey by Arndt and Pilz (2020). According to this, teachers see case studies as having an advantage over traditional lessons in terms of both knowledge acquisition and knowledge application, with knowledge application also tending to be rated higher by teachers than knowledge acquisition (ibid., 52) 

6.3.2 Social competence 

The items on communication and conflict skills were aggregated to measure student perceptions of the achievement of didactic goals related to social competence. 

When the two individual items were aggregated, the lowest level of agreement was measured, compared to the other sub-competencies (M=2.79; SD=0.67). The values reflect lower agreement of goal achievement in the area of social skills. Comparing the two items reveals stronger agreement in improving communication skills (M=2.93; SD=0.75), compared to conflict skills (M=2.65; SD=0.82), in the use of case studies. 

6.3.3 Self-competence 

The achievement of the didactic goals for self-competence, was measured differently to the other sub-competencies with only one item, which also explains the higher standard deviation, since the collected data were not averaged individually for each participant. 

The item on the improvement of independence reflects the highest mean value, in comparison to the other items of this question matrix. Thus, from the students’ point of view, the didactic goal of promoting independence is best achieved through the use of case studies (M=3.07; SD=0.80). This could be an indication that students appreciate the freedom granted when working on case studies. According to this, students would learn to take responsibility for their own learning process and to plan it independently (Pilz & Zenner 2018). 

6.3.4 Methodological competencies 

The items for measuring the didactic goals of improving problem-solving ability, promoting creativity and networked thinking, were assigned to methodological competence. 

In the aggregation, a medium level of agreement of the students to the achievement of the didactic goals in the area of methodological competence can be determined (M=2.91; SD=0.58). When comparing the individual items, it is noticeable that the promotion of networked thinking (M=3.00; SD=0.78) and the improvement of problem-solving ability (M=2.95; SD=0.74), are rated higher than the promotion of creativity (M=2.79; SD=0.80). 

The students’ clear agreement with the item “improvement of problem-solving ability,” confirms the results of the teacher surveys by Pätzold et al. (2003, 160) and Arndt and Pilz (2020, 51). This result was to be expected, since case studies, by definition, describe problematic situations for which students search for, discuss, and select possible solutions in group or individual work (Herreid 2011, 31). 

The students’ perception that the case study teaching-learning method is suitable for improving networked thinking ability, confirms the results of an experimental study by Pilz (2001). In this study, there was found to be a positive correlation between the processing of case studies and networked thinking ability (Pilz 2001, 197). 

6.3.5 Other didactic goals 

The two items on the suitability of case studies for student motivation and practical school-based training, were evaluated separately.  

The item on the suitability of case studies for student motivation was rated lowest by the students (M=2.55; SD=0.90). The mean value is close to the middle of the scale used, according to which the participating students neither agree nor disagree with the statement “Case studies are particularly well suited to motivate.” The comparatively high standard deviation also reflects less agreement about this statement than about the other items surveyed. It is also noticeable that the answer option “does not apply” was selected significantly more frequently for this item than for the other items. Nearly 18% of the students surveyed do not find that case studies motivate them. The item on the perception of the case study method as a chance to get a practically orientated vocational school education, was rated higher by the students (M=2.80; SD=0.89). However, the standard deviation for this item is also comparatively high, indicating that there is also a greater difference of opinion among the respondents for this item. 

When evaluating the individual didactic objectives, it is noticeable that all objectives received more positive evaluations (“always applies” or “often applies”) than negative evaluations (“rarely applies” or “does not apply”). This result suggests that the majority of the students find the case study suitable for realising the associated didactic objectives. 

6.4 Situational Interest 

Research question Q 5: 

The items surveying the present and future importance of the topics covered in case studies, were combined in the indicator ‘subjective importance’. 

When the two items were aggregated, no significant agreement value was recorded (M=2.55; SD=0.68). Examination of the individual items also reveals no major differences in the ratings of present (M=2.52; SD=0.88) and future (M=2.59; SD=0.87) importance of the topics covered. The result is surprising in that, according to the definition of the case study teaching-learning method, students should develop solutions to problems based on actual, practical, and problematic cases (Pilz and Zenner 2018, 326). This should create a connection to current or later professional situations in order to enable the transfer of what has been learned (Kopf et al 2010, 4). 

To measure the indicator “method interest,” several items were aggregated (cf Figure 2). 

The scale measures task interest and was reformulated for this questionnaire to measure interest in the case study teaching-learning method in general. In addition, the last item was formulated independently, to investigate whether working with case studies is useful from the students’ point of view, or whether traditional teaching-learning methods should be used. When the five items on method interest were aggregated, a medium level of agreement was obtained (M=2.77; SD=0.71). This is an indication that the use of the case study teaching-learning method arouses situational interest among the students surveyed. This indication is reinforced by the high mean value of 2.97 for the item “I find case studies interesting.”  

The correlation analysis performed was able to show that the two variables “subjective meaningfulness” and “method interest” correlate significantly, with medium effect-size (r=.523; p<.001). The two variables thus represent a common construct. This construct is referred to as “case study situational interest” in this study. 

To test the research questions, the construct “case study-related situational interest” was examined for significant correlations with the item on motivation. The calculation of the correlation was able to empirically demonstrate a significant mean correlation between the construct “case study-related situational interest” and students’ perceived motivation (r=.537; p<.001)). This shows how closely case study situational interest and motivation are linked, and that agreement regarding the situational interest items lead to agreement of the motivation variable and vice versa. This correlation does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship, as no statement can be made about which variable is cause and which is effect. Nevertheless, there is a medium-sized positive correlation of the two variables, which means that the research question that was postulated can be confirmed. 

Research question Q 6: 

To answer the final research question, student perceptions of selected design criteria of case studies were measured first. When looking at the individual items, the statement “I liked working in groups” stands out, as a high arithmetic mean of 2.95 could be determined here. This is an indication that teachers should combine the case study processing with group work phases, because the students appreciate the joint processing. The other two items on processing time and number of materials have means close to the midpoint of the scale used. That is, the statements “There are too many materials/texts in the case studies” and “It takes too long to process case studies” have neither clear agreement nor disagreement. 

A correlation analysis was used to determine which design criteria are related to the situational interest of participating students. For this purpose, the individual design criteria were examined for significant correlations with the construct of case study-related situational interest. On the level of the individual selected design criteria, the expected correlations could be confirmed for the criterion of “processing time” (r=.432; p<.001) and the number of materials and texts (r=.254; p<.05). “Working in groups” and “case study situational interest,” do not correlate significantly. However, the significant positive correlations between the design criteria “processing time” and “number of materials and texts” and the construct of “case study-related situational interest” can be understood as an indication of a positive correlation between a positive evaluation of the design criterion and a higher case study-related situational interest. 

A specific statement about the relationship between design criteria and case study situational interest, cannot be made at this point, because a later analysis indicates a low reliability of the scale. Thus, to answer the research question more precisely, further investigations with other design criteria would be an interesting continuation of this study. 

7 Discussion 

The data obtained show, that students who have experience in learning with case studies, generally assess them positively. In particular, the learning of self-competence and specialist knowledge are positively emphasised, and the arousal of interest is also clear. Surprising is the finding that the students only recognise the future significance of case studies to a limited extent. Thus, the practical relevance of case studies in the context of work-orientated learning, as postulated above, was not explicitly mentioned by the students. However, it should be borne in mind that students in full-time vocational school courses in particular, generally do not yet have any work experience, and that it may therefore not yet be possible to make a realistic assessment of the practical relevance. Other European studies also show that full-time commercial students in particular, rate the practical relevance of teaching-learning instruments related to workplace situations very positively (Edeling & Pilz 2016). 

However, our findings highlight another feature: only about half of the students surveyed are familiar with case studies, and of these, a number have only been able to gain experience very sporadically. In addition, there is the finding that case studies were more likely to be encountered by students in part-time classes rather than in full-time vocational school classes. Consequently, case studies are more likely to be used with apprenticeship-students who are already familiar with professional practice, rather than with students for whom case studies might particularly enhance work-related learning through their practical relevance. 

In our opinion, these unexpected findings require a deeper interpretation as well as some recommendations. To this end, the analysis should be conducted by means of the dimensions central to school-based implementation research: a) curricular framework, b) necessary resources, and c) the role of teachers and students as actors. 

a) Curricular framework 

Curricular specifications represent a central condition for the use of case studies, although various studies document the difference between the written curriculum and the enacted curriculum (Chen et al. 2021; Pilz, Berger and Canning 2014; Zenner, Kumar and Pilz 2017). The curricula in the school-based part of the dual apprenticeship system, which are largely standardised in Germany, are also particularly close to work-orientated learning in the commercial occupations, due to their orientation to real business processes. In this context, the structuring not via subjects but via so-called “learning fields,” that map an entire business process from practice, is particularly favourable for the use of case studies (Pilz and Fürstenau 2019). 

In the training courses of full-time vocational schools, the curricula are regulated differently at the level of the federal states. As already indicated above, the curricula in the federal state of NRW are somewhat more practice-orientated in contrast to Lower Saxony, which is due in particular to the learning field structure also introduced there. Despite these partial differences, the use of case studies is possible in both federal states with regard to the curricular specifications. This possibility is also underlined by the fact that case studies, in contrast to other complex teaching-learning instruments facing work-related situations, such as learning offices, only take up a few school hours and can therefore be integrated relatively easily into curricular and didactic planning. 

b) Required resources 

If the curricular requirements specifically allow for the use of case studies, the relatively weak dissemination of case studies measured in our study could be due to the lack of resources. The resource of teaching time has already been excluded as a limitation, consequently the focus is on the necessity for rooms and media. Again, in contrast to, for example, business games or training firms, the case study is a teaching-learning instrument with low demand. The students of a class can usually do the group work in the classroom. The cases themselves, as well as the presentation of the case study solution results, are presented via the media that are also common in traditional teaching, such as handouts, data projectors, and so forth. 

A possible limitation of the use of case studies, is the lack of case studies designed for the commercial sector. While there is a wide range of case studies in the University sector (cf. e.g., Harvard Business Case Center or The Case Center), such offers are not available to the same extent in the vocational school context, apart from a few exceptions (cf. e.g., Pilz 2003). The conception of didactically demanding case studies by the teachers themselves, however, requires not only the corresponding know-how, but also a large amount of work, and thus time. The findings presented above also show the importance, from the students’ point of view, of high-quality, modelled case studies. However, it can be assumed that individual teachers, and even entire teaching staffs, shy away from this investment of working time. Consequently, greater development work, for example, by scientific institutions, author collectives of textbook publishers, or also the teacher training institutions, is recommended here. 

c) The role of teachers and students as actors 

The special role of teachers has already been briefly discussed above, in the context of the enacted curriculum. If a somewhat deeper analysis is carried out here, it can be assumed that teachers use case studies when they are already familiar with this teaching-learning method and are convinced of its learning effectiveness. However, the study by Arndt and Pilz (2020) has determined, for German vocational school education, that a significant number of teachers are not sufficiently informed about this teaching approach. Consequently, in the future it will be necessary to provide comprehensive information about case studies in university teacher training, as well as in the subsequent teacher traineeship, to enable future teachers to use them in commercial teaching. To this end, we have, for example, actively involved students of business education in the didactic design of case studies within the framework of research-based learning (Tögel et al. 2021). 

Ultimately, the focus should be on the learning of individual students. Our data suggest that some of the students themselves are not convinced of the use of case studies or even reject them. Although our findings also show that a small number of students, for example, do indicate experience with case studies and emphasise the teaching of competencies such as specialised knowledge through case studies, for many other students the lack of familiarity with case studies and the associated learning processes, can be cited. On the one hand, this is because case studies are also only available to a limited extent for the general and pre-vocational education school sector, at least in the German case (Pilz 2013). This situation consequently makes it difficult for students to become successively acquainted with this teaching-learning instrument and can lead to excessive demands in dealing with complex problems, especially for students with learning difficulties. On the other hand, the experience of the students so far, could indicate a lack of quality in the case studies used. Should this be the case, then the development and provision of didactically high-quality case studies, as well as appropriate training of the teaching staff, should be advocated. 

Finally, a fact concerning both teachers and students must be pointed out. Not only in the German context, but also internationally, there are findings documenting the adherence to traditional teaching models, in the sense of teacher centred learning, in commercial training (Guo and Pilz 2020; Pilz and Gronowski 2020). One reason for this, which, among others, is regularly seen, is the fact that examinations are less designed to deal with practical problems and are more orientated toward subject-specific content and structures. Consequently, both teachers and students act rationally when they prefer a traditional lesson design with a strong focus on subject knowledge, in order to comply as well as possible with the “hidden curriculum” of the exams. Although a number of reforms in German commercial training in the past, have contributed to a stronger practical orientation of the examinations, there is also still a lot of room for innovation here, in order to secure work-orientated learning via the examination requirements.  

8. Outlook 

This study is subject to some limitations. Due to the retrospective investigation of student perceptions, the validity of the conducted measurement is negatively influenced by forgetting and error inference (Blome & Augustin 2015). This is exemplified by the Cronbach Alpha values for method competence, method interest, and design criteria, which were determined via the statistical evaluation programme JASP. For the variable methodological competence, an approximately “good” Cronbach’s alpha of 0.616 could be calculated. According to this, the internal consistency of the items used to operationalise the latent variable “methodological competence,” is not yet optimal. If the questionnaire is used again, the operationalisation of methodological competence should be revised, for example, by adding another item to measure the transfer ability of the students. A good Cronbach Alpha value of 0.880 could be determined for the variable “method interest.” Using the statistics programme JASP, it was also possible to determine that the Cronbach’s alpha would increase to 0.905 if the self-constructed item “I find working with case studies superfluous. I prefer to learn with structured presented content” was omitted. This could be an indication that this item was understood differently by the different students surveyed (Leiner 2006, 2). If the questionnaire is used again, deletion of this item should be considered.  

For the construct “design criteria” a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.176 could be calculated. This value shows that the characteristic “design criteria” could not be measured stably with the selected items. This can be explained by the fact that the three selected criteria could not achieve sufficient content representation. For this reason, no statement could be made about the relationship between design criteria and case study-related situational interest when presenting the results. 

In addition to these adaptations of the test items, a modified test design with an experimental, comparative survey would also be an interesting extension of the study. Here, one class experiences a teaching-learning process with the use of case studies, and a control group without the use of case studies. 

Despite these limitations, the findings indicate that only a little over half of the students surveyed were aware of the use of case studies, but the students with experience of case studies perceived them very positively. This result should encourage teachers in the business-administrative field at vocational schools, to use action-orientated teaching-learning methods such as case studies in order to further increase work-orientated learning.  

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CITATION:

Heuer, S. & Pilz, M. (2022). Work-orientated learning: The use of case studies in business education from a student’s perspective. In: TVET@Asia, issue 18, 1-21. Online: http://tvet-online.asia/issue/18/work-orientated-learning-the-use-of-case-studies-in-business-education-from-a-students-perspective (retrieved 31.01.2022).

Formation of vocational competencies and skills is an important economic, political, and educational issue in many countries. Beside the formal TVET-system, informal learning takes place in many forms and has an important impact. In some countries, informal learning covers entirely the major part of vocational learning activities. In other countries, informal learning is being integrated into formal TVET-systems or being enriched by non-formal learning. Furthermore, the accreditation of prior experiential learning (APEL) and validation of informal leaning is a field of continuous development, especially for highly formal TVET-systems and in Higher Education.

Very often informal learning takes place in the so called ‘informal sector’. This ‘informal sector’ is defined by the ILO thus: “informal units comprise small enterprises with hired workers, household enterprises using mostly family labour, and self-employed. Production processes involve relatively high levels of working capital as against fixed capital, which in turn reflects the relatively low level of technology and skill involved” (ILO 1998). The last aspect – the low skill level – is of particular interest to educationalists.

In this context, we understand skill development as “acquisition of practical competencies, know-how, and attitudes to perform a trade or occupation in the labour market, either through formal public or private schools, institutions or centres, informal, traditional apprenticeships, or non-formal semi-structured training.” (King & Palmer, 2010). This definition shows clearly that skills development need not be confined to formal, structured courses of training but may also take place in unstructured and unplanned contexts.

However, we shall be supplementing this approach with a third dimension – non-formal learning – which was first introduced as far back as during the 1960s (Coombs 1968) and is now promoted with minor differences in detail, for example, by the European Commission (2000) or UNESCO (2012):

“Formal learning takes place in education and training institutions, leading to recognised diplomas and qualifications. Non-formal learning takes place alongside the mainstream systems of education and training and does not typically lead to formalised certificates. Non-formal learning may be provided in the workplace and through the activities of civil society organisations and groups (such as in youth organisations, trades unions and political parties). It can also be provided through organisations or services that have been set up to complement formal systems (such as arts, music and sports classes or private tutoring to prepare for examinations). Informal learning is a natural accompaniment to everyday life. Unlike formal and non-formal learning, informal learning is not necessarily intentional learning, and so may well not be recognised even by individuals themselves as contributing to their knowledge and skills.”

We shall not be exploring discrepancies in definitions and approaches here (see OECD 2007) but can use the distinction to understand the papers in this special issue much better. Our aim here is also to represent a broad understanding of skill development so that by considering the socio-economic framework, it becomes possible to make a rich and meaningful analysis of different data. For example, an ILO-study in South-India (Mitra 2002) shows clearly that, in a context that is typical of the informal economy, informal learning cannot be understood solely by analysing opportunities for learning or by assessing the skills that individuals acquire as a result. Rather, these findings need to be seen in a broader context that takes account of the socio-economic background and of the relationships between actors.

It is striking that even though informal learning is so important the number of researchers in the field is quite small, especially when it comes to country specific approaches in Asia. We do not know a lot about how learning takes place in different working situations, long-term results, or how learning conditions and surroundings influences informal learning in private life, the local labour market, and the national economy in Asian countries. In addition, the interaction between the formal education system and the procedures of informal learning is widely unknown.

In order to fill this important gap in understanding informal earning in Asian economies, this special issue was initiated. A call for papers was sent out inviting scholars to contribute their research. The final papers selected for inclusion in this special issue, cover between them, a diverse set of research questions and help us to getter a better understanding of the informal learning in the Asian economies.

Uma, Li, Sirilak, Prontadavit and Pilz analyse the skills among population in informal sector with special reference to street food vending in China, Thailand and India. Using case study method, the authors address the following questions: Where do individuals acquire their knowledge of the skills required in the informal sector? How does informal learning take place in informal settings? What kind of skills do individuals have, and to what level? How are individuals running their businesses? The findings of the research indicate that informal learning is of major importance and that socio-economic background and education level interact with informal learning. The paper also discusses possible changes in VET-policy to support street food vendors learning processes in all three countries.

HAASLER, ANSLINGER and LAUDENBACH compare VPL (validation and recognition of prior non-formal and informal learning) approaches and practice in Denmark, Germany, Poland and Turkey, with the particular focus on if and how VPL initiatives support individuals’ labour market inclusion and further learning. The first part of the paper sketches the national approaches of VPL in the four countries against European guidelines, the second part analyses the role of institutions in the validation process, reverting to practical examples from Denmark and Germany to illustrate when and how institutions and institutional support structures may come into play to support effective validation processes.

OANH reveals the status of assessing pedagogical competence in training students to become TVET teachers at higher education institutions of technology and education in Vietnam. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, the author gathers data associated with CBA (Competence-Based Assessment) in general and the application of this approach in assessing pedagogical competence of students. The paper gives minor suggestions to strengthen the quality of applying CBA in assessing pedagogical competence of students in higher education institutions of technology and education in Vietnam.

XUAN TIEN, VO’s paper is the research findings from two-months-field-trip through 4 companies with different sizes, various levels of automation and complexness of job activities. Using qualitative interview and case study, some factors of informal learning are clarified. The paper gives some suggestions concerning the development of professional profile, role of centre of professional competencies, solutions for bridging gap between vocational schools and companies, it also brings some lessons learned from countries, where competencies of informal learning are recognized.

PRUSTY proposes a model for developing a sustainable TVET system that would integrate the source of knowledge and skill from the community, certification from existing formal professional institutions, and a third party which is to manage the production-distribution chain to the market generating self-sustaining revenue in his paper. The proposed model has a holistic view of not only producing community specific skilled manpower but also employing them for production, and avoiding the overdependence on the saturated market for employment through linking to targeted consumers through an integrated production-distribution value chain. The paper follows an open ended interviewing of the related stakeholders of horticulture farming community of Shillong, Meghalaya, India and the model hypotheses were tested through the interview content analysis.

VENKATRAM and SAKTHIRAMA carry out an empirical study focusing on the type of trainings undergone by farmers in a region in India to acquire the technologies and measure the degree of informal learnings took place after formal trainings. The study finds out that some fine-tunings or tinkering of the technologies through the informal and traditional knowledge already possessed by the farmers becomes essential and this could lead to further specialization and improve the adaptability. The study also reveals that the farmers with their own experience and self-learning are found to improvise these practices better.

Palanithurai and Seerangarajan investigate the structure and process of the informal learning of a particular weavers group in Chinnalapatti, a cluster in southern India which is known for the preparation of a special art silk sarees. The study focuses on how these weavers change to new skills through informal skilling process, the associated structures and the individuals’ motivation to acquire the needed skill. This empirical study covering a district weavers’ group could offer some interesting suggestion concerning the model for other weavers groups. We hope that these papers together will contribute to a highly important topic and help to fill the existing research gap.

References

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Informal sector dominates the economic activities of the Asian Counties like India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Cambodia, Vietnam and China and so does informal learning. By looking at the percentage of the population occupied in the informal sector, especially street food vending, the present study attempts to unravel the ways in which knowledge and skills acquired in the informal sectors especially street food vending by the individuals. It is field based research. We have collected data for the research from major metropolitans in China, Thailand and India due to the presence of a large number of street food vendors. The interview schedule is prepared based on the informal learning theory. The results of the study revealed that majority of street food vendors in China, Thailand and India acquire much of their knowledge and skills in catering and business management from work experiences. The informal learning from real work experiences instead of formal schooling plays a central role in their skill and knowledge acquisition. The learning happens in different settings like family, community, neighbours and friends. The promotion of non-formal adult learning may strengthen the skill development in the developing and transition countries.

Key words: Informal Sector, Informal learning, Street food vending and skill development

1 Introduction

The significant growth and development in Asian countries has brought about innumerable variations in the macro-economic situations such as urbanisation and changes in the share of different sectors in the economy. These changes increase the economic activities of the informal sector in the developing and transition countries. The rural migrant, semi-skilled, unskilled, and less-educated population join the informal sector in poorer countries like India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Cambodia and Vietnam. In countries like China and Thailand, some workers in formal sector are forced into informal sector due to layoffs (Bhowmik 2005). Considering the percentage of population involved in informal sector, especially street food vending, we have decided to study about this topic in China, Thailand and India with the following research questions.

• Where do individuals acquire knowledge and skills required in the informal sector?
• How does informal learning take place in informal settings?
• What kind of skills do individuals have, and to what level?
• How do individuals run their businesses?

Before exploring further street food vending, a brief introduction about informal sector and informal learning with special reference to China, Thailand and India is in order.

2 Informal Sector, Informal learning and Street Food Vending

Globalization and open economy in Asian Countries further expanded the informal sector through capital movement across national boundaries. This informalisation of macro economy provides cheap labour and small scale support services by producing goods in piece rate and offers contractual services to multinational and transnational corporations (Rani & Unni 2009). According to International Labour Organization (ILO), Informal Economy has grown to account for 65 per cent of the total non-agricultural employment in Asia (ILO 2002 cited in Debrah 2007). This paper follows the definition of Charmes (1999) with regard to informal sector.

‘Informal Sector is defined as comprising: Informal Self-owned enterprises that may employ family workers and one or more employees on an occasional or continuous basis.’

Charmes, 1999 provides a further statistical definition which distinguishes between the two main components of the segments of the informal sector as: (i) the ‘family enterprise’ (own account informal enterprises) without permanent employees; and (ii) the ‘micro-enterprises’ (informal employers) with permanent employees’. Micro-enterprises are defined as those informal sector units that employ salaried employees (between five and ten) on a continuous basis be they home-based, street-based or established in fixed premises (as cited in Debrah 2007).

Informal Sector is also known as unorganised sector in India (NCEUS 2009) and it is a ‘developing and transition countries’ phenomenon (Huang 2009; Schneider 2006). Our focus in this paper is about skill development in the informal sector, particularly the street food venders. Skill development is defined as:

‘Acquisition of practical competencies, know-how, and attitudes to perform a trade or occupation in the labour market, either through formal public or private schools, institutions or centres, informal, traditional apprenticeships or non-formal semi-structured training.’ (King & Palmer 2010, 136).

Our study is based on the informal learning theories. It is necessary define formal, non-formal and informal learning. The definitions are as follows:

‘Formal learning takes place in education and training institutions, leading to recognized diplomas and qualifications.’ (UNESCO 2012; Pilz et al. 2015)

‘Non-formal learning takes place alongside the mainstream system of education and training and does not typically lead to formalized certificates. Non-formal learning may be provided in the workplace and through the activities of civil society organizations and groups (such as youth organizations, trade unions and political parties). It can also be provided through organizations and services which have been set up to complement formal systems (such as arts, music and sports classes or private tutoring to prepare for examinations).’ (UNESCO 2012)

‘Informal learning is a natural accompaniment to everyday life. Unlike formal and non-formal learning, informal learning is not necessarily the intentional learning, and so even the individuals may not recognise it as a substantial contributor to their knowledge and skills.’ (UNESCO 2012; Pilz et al. 2015)

The respondents of the study are street food vendors. The definition for the street vendor is follow as:

‘A street food vendor is a person who offers goods for sale to the public without having a permanent built-up structure from which to sell. Street vendors may be stationary in the sense that they occupy space on the pavements or other public/private spaces or, they may be mobile in the sense they move from place to place carrying their wares on push carts or in baskets on their heads.’ (Bhowmik 2005)

This paper applies these definitions. Street vendors provide goods including food at lower prices for urban population (Bhowmik 2005).

3 Country selection criteria

 employment is about 65 per cent in Asia in early 2000s (ILO 2002b). There are various kinds of employment opportunities in the informal sector. Among them, street vending, especially street food vending, occupies a significant position and considerable number of people depend on street food vending as their livelihood option in China, Thailand and India. The existing studies (Tinker 1997; Yasmeen 2000; Bhowmik 2005; Wardrop 2006; Chung et al. 2010; Gadi et al. 2013; Etzold 2014; Swider 2015) did not concentrate on skill development, informal learning and street food vending. Rather they were more about the extent of their presence, role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Self Help Groups (SHGs) in street food vendors’ welfare, contribution of street food to address urban food security, policies related to street food vending, Thai habit of public eating, hygienic practices, rights of street food vendors and cultural factors.

Searches revealed a scarcity of literature on informal learning in China. The existing studies focus on different forms of e-learning and distance learning. These studies have predominantly addressed the application of technologies in the informal learning. A few studies have examined the development of competence through informal learning, but mainly in the field of teacher’s development. Very few studies have paid attention to the effect of informal learning in the informal setting (Yang & Yu 2010). The study conducted by Pilz et al. (2015) in two cities of India brought the significance of non-formal learning for skill development among street food vendors.

4 State of Research

Before looking at skill development in street food vending using primary data, a brief review of the literature regarding the informal sector, skill development and informal learning in China, Thailand and India is presented in this section.

In China there are about 277.5 million immigrant workers (nongmingong) in urban areas in 2015 and many of these immigrants are working in informal sectors (NBSPRC 2016). Their work input is 50 per cent more than the formal workers, while their earning is 60 per cent less than them (Huang 2006). Out of the 302 million workers, 182 million urban workers are in informal sector, many of whom are into street vending. Along with immigrants from rural areas, some local urban people also take to street vending due to layoffs with the advent of economic restructuring.

In Thailand, manufacturing sector is not able to absorb the whole migrant population. This resulted in the expansion of informal sector (Arunotai et al. 2007). Financial crisis led to loss of jobs for millions of workers and they too were forced into informal sector as house maids, street food vendors, motorcycle or taxi drivers etc. Among informal employees in street vending, 30-90 per cent are women, even though women’s labour force participation in all sectors is less than men’s (ILO 2002b).

In the past few decades, India has become one of the fastest growing economies along with China and Vietnam (Basu 2008). Besides formal employment, informal sector has grown and the contribution of the informal economy to the overall economy is 60 per cent in India (The World Bank 2008; ILO 2002a). The estimate (Rodrik 1997; Planning Commission 2001; Chen et al. 2002; Dev 2000; Marjit 2003; Chaudhari & Banerjee 2007) of informal work force accounts to 93 per cent of the total work force in India. Only two per cent of the Indian workforce has formal vocational training and 80 per cent of workers have acquired skills informally while on the job (Mehrotra 2014b). As many as 2.5 per cent of the urban population in India chooses street vending as an occupation (Bhowmik 2005).

We illustrate the presence of informal sectors in the selected three countries for this study. According to Charmes (1999) and Bhowmik (2005), we broadly categorise the activities of the informal sector into two groups: informal self-owned enterprises and casual workers. Majority of the self-owned enterprises in informal sector are into street vending (Bhowmik 2005). Home based workers and street vendors comprise the largest sub-groups in the informal workforce. Between the two, visibility of street vendors is more prominent. They comprise 10-25 per cent of the non-agricultural workforce in developing countries (ILO 2002b). The workforce distribution in the informal sector differs from country to country. As far as China, Thailand and India are concerned, considerable number of people are into street food vending.

This paper discusses skill development through informal learning based on the definitions given above and the theoretical aspects of informal learning. There are existing theoretical aspects of informal learning and skill formation in the informal sector. Most of the time, informal learning is not accepted as learning as it is invisible and the resultant knowledge is tacit attributable to the learning capability of the individual rather than the learning environment. When one provides learning and learners gain knowledge and skill from that environment, the existing learning discourse stresses on gaining knowledge which must be factual and measured. But in informal learning, learners certainly find it difficult to describe what a complex work environment is and how much they learn from that environment (Eraut 2004). There are three important characteristics in informal learning. They are implicit, unintended, opportunistic and unstructured. Implicit learning is defined by Reber 1993 as ‘the acquisition of knowledge independently of conscious attempts to learn and in the absence of explicit knowledge about what was learned’. We have drawn the inference on the significance of studying informal sector and the process of acquiring skill by understanding the existing theories of informal learning.

5 Method

Based on the literature review above, empirical studies were carried out in the corresponding countries. In order to compare the facts and results from each country it is necessary to have a comparable structure for empirical investigation. To obtain an in-depth understanding of the situation of the street food venders and their skill acquisition, face-to-face interview was preferred as an effective method. Meanwhile, for the sake of certain flexibility and allowing for country-specific conditions, not all the interview questions could be pre-determined. Therefore, we conducted semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with street food venders in each country.

Case study method has been used for similar investigations in the past (Denzin & Lincoln 2005). The data for the present study comes from field research and is collected from major metropolitans of the chosen country because of the availability of large number of street food vendors and the samples of the respondents have been chosen through purposive sampling method; in this case the cities are Shanghai in China, Bangkok in Thailand and New Delhi in India. The present study can be called as instrumental case study extended to several cases or as multiple or several case studies (Denzin & Lincoln 2005), because researchers try to get insights of the skill transfer and acquisition of knowledge. The researchers purposely choose several cases in three countries to bring some types of understanding on skill transfer and bring knowledge to existing informal learning (Denzin & Lincoln 2005). The researchers in this study try to draw the activities and functioning of the street food vendors in physical setting, as well as socio-economic, political and legal contexts. Based on the research questions, structured interview schedule with open and close-ended questions were prepared. The in-depth interview is conducted among deliberately chosen samples. Based on the existing informal learning theory, the questionnaire for interview is developed in line with the existing socio-economic condition of the informal sector especially street food vending. The informal learning theory discusses gaining of tacit knowledge, contribution of environment, contribution of individuals and difficulty in measuring skill levels (Barber 2004; Prakash & Kumar 2016). Considering existing theories and difficulty in measuring, we have chosen the case study method. Each interview was carried out by two researchers in all three countries. One researcher puts forth the questions and the other researcher records the answers. The answers revealed by the respondents are verified through observation.

The current study by researchers not only explored the individuals from different angles but also collected quantitative data to investigate the socio-economic condition of the respondents. The recorded interview was developed as case and quantitative details are tabulated. Altogether the sample size is 44 with the breakup details of 10 in China, 19 in India and 15 in Thailand. The case study of the data is presented in three sections. The first section analyses quantitative data, the second, cases, and the final section analyses vocational training, informal learning and skill development in street food vending.

6 Results and Analysis

Table 1 below demonstrates some of the main characteristics of street food vendors in the selected countries.

Table 1: Education and Socio-economic Background of the respondents

n*= 19 n**= 10  n***=15

The socioeconomic background shows that the respondents start their entry into street food vending at the age of 18 in India and China. They get into vending at 22 in Thailand. The literacy rate among respondents from India is 94 per cent and the overall literacy rate in India as per 2011 census is 74 per cent (Census of India 2011). Existing studies point out that illiterate and semiliterate with low skilled or unskilled workers joins the informal sector. Among the informal sector, the percentage of the population joining food industry/street food vending has increased. Similarly, the sale and consumption of street food are increasing in the recent years. In many developing countries like India and Thailand, street food vending is a common phenomenon of urban lifestyle due to unemployment and limited work opportunities (Gadi et al. 2013). Unlike India, the literacy rate and minimum educational qualification to enter into street food vending are higher in China and Thailand. The previous study found that a higher percentage of females join street food vending in Thailand due to various reasons (ILO 2004; Chung et al. 2010). This reflects in our studies too. Women in Thailand become income earners of their families. Men preferred to stay at home and remain unemployed. Men considered informal employment such as vending and selling food is apt only for women (ILO 2004). 72.9 per cent of the female and 72.3 per cent of the male were part of the informal employment excluding agriculture employment in Indonesia (Laborsta 2012). The percentage of women entering into street food vending is low in India and our study is not able to locate women street food vendors in New Delhi. More than street food vending, women prefer other types of street vending like selling vegetables and materials. Likewise, the female labour force participation in India is 29 per cent in 2009-2010 and it fell from 37 per cent in 2004-2005 according to ILO’s Global Employment Trend 2013 report. Women play a supporting role in China in street food vending. 35.7 per cent of female and 30.1 per cent of the male were part of the informal employment excluding agriculture employment in China (Laborsta 2012). With regard to educational level, 20 per cent of the respondents from Thailand attained highest degree, 7 per cent of the respondents obtained a certificate specializing in finance and food safety in addition to a higher degree.

All the respondents are self-employed in Thailand. This percentage is only 63 in India and 90 in China. More than 50 per cent (China 56 per cent and Thailand 53 per cent) have been running their street food vending for less than a decade. In India, 32 per cent of the respondents have been running the street food vending business for less than 10 years. 20 per cent of the respondents in Thailand, 26 per cent in India and 10 per cent in China have been doing their business for a long period spanning over 20 years.

By looking at the respondent’s working capital and volume of sales, considerable percentage of profit is earned by the respondents.

Learning – Skill Acquisition

The results of the interviews suggest that the street food vendors in all three countries acquire their skills in a similar pattern to a certain degree. The majority of the interviewees learn a considerable part of their skills through learning on the job in an informal way.

When asked about the necessity of schooling, a Chinese interviewee mentioned the importance of learning from experiences instead of theory: ‘With that book knowledge alone you won’t have a clue how things work here in reality’, and that ‘theories are just for those big companies’.

The present study found that street food vendors in India acquire skill and knowledge through close relatives. There is no formal training available to gain knowledge. Apart from close relatives, they learn skills by observing from previous employers. Only one respondent attended preservation technique training organised by the government. The number of women street food vendors is high in Thailand. The process of socialization defines roles and responsibilities for men and women. Cooking and household chores are defined as women’s roles. By preparing food for others at home, they learn cooking (Moser 1993; Kabeer 1999). With this skill, family members motivate them to start their own business. Food served in street food shops are normal, regular, consumable food. To prepare food with unique taste, homemade spices are used. The same socialization process shows a variation in gender roles in India and China. In India men are considered as breadwinners. When cooking comes as an economic opportunity, men occupy the prime position in vending and women assist their counterparts; whereas in China women may also take the lead role in cooking or management. None of the respondents underwent vocational training skills in India.

Unlike in India, the majority of the street food vendors acquire their catering skills by working as apprentices in restaurants or food chains in China. Some of the respondents are not trained in food industry, but they have learnt management and financial skills to run the business in VET institute or from experiences. Study shows that VET is in line with industry needs and local industries are involved in training. But in India only two per cent of the workforce, between age 15 and 29 gets formal skill training and eight per cent gets informal training (Mehrotra 2014b). School dropouts directly join informal sector without acquiring required skills.

Like India, street food vendors in Thailand acquire cooking skills by observing family members or peers. Women dominate in street food vending in Thailand. This is proved in the study conducted by ILO in 2004. They try to improve the taste of the dishes by getting suggestions from the customers. So the vendor-customer interaction is unique in Thailand. A woman street food vendor remarked:

‘My family is behind me and my aim is to expand the business with the required license. Formal training is required only for those who do not know about the basics of cooking and being a woman, I can teach better.’

The results of our study show that vendors in Thailand and India prepare food freshly and they serve. Vendors in Thailand practice hygienic techniques to prepare and serve food. The officials from the Department of Public Health, Government of Thailand visit vending site regularly to ensure hygiene. They conduct training programme on regular basis on health and hygiene. According to a vendor:

‘There are authorities to check quality of foods in the past. Currently, vendors are part of the government project by the Ministry of Public Health which ensures quality and make the vendors to wear proper clothes like apron, mask and hat while cooking.’

Vendors are also advised to consult doctors regularly for their personal health. They get counselled not to cook or sell during their illness.

Vendors in India cook fresh food every day. They don’t freeze remaining food to use next day. Street food vendors do practice hygiene. But, it depends upon individual vendors. According to one vendor: ‘My father taught me to be hygienic to attract customers.’ Another vendor opines that ‘perfect hygiene is impossible to maintain as it is a street shop’, he says. But they take care of some basic issues like keeping the food stall clean, keeping the food covered, keeping the hands and nails clean and asking the employees to keep short hair. In China, hygienic practices depend upon vendor’s individual choice.

General Business Knowledge: Pricing, book keeping and m  arketing

The majority of the interviewees in all three countries have not attended any formal education or training in financial management and business. Their understanding and knowledge on how to run a business are obtained from their work experiences. For them, the theoretical knowledge of business is something far away from reality, whereas the real-life experiences are valuable sources of practical know-how.

A Chinese woman selling Chinese meat bread thinks that theoretical knowledge learned from school can be helpful, however, hands-on training teaches even more:

‘When you start the business you will learn many things you did not know before, for example, we realised after a very short time that we didn’t need to rent the canteen room, because most customers either get takeaway food on their way to work or home, or they call for delivery food from companies or home.’

Even a young couple who studied business in their college regard practical know-how gained from actual working as more important: ‘Theoretical knowledge learned at school is not very useful in reality; we have to figure out things from what is really happening on the street’. However, the young couple applied some business strategies that are quite unique when compared to other street food venders. When they just started their business less than a year ago, they had printed brochures introducing their main courses and addresses; they use smartphone applications and other internet tools to attract customers other than those from the neighbourhood. They have an ambition of making franchise stores in the future.

The researchers enquired about general issues like pricing, book-keeping and marketing. As far as India is concerned, there are no considerable changes in the price of the items every year. But a few respondents said that they moderately increase the price by 0.027 Euro or 0.040 Euro once in six months. Majority of the respondents in Indian cities fix price of the products based on the price of the competitor’s product without calculating the cost of the ingredients, labour charge and rent of the place (if rented). Street food vendors do not have the habit of keeping accounts (book-keeping). However, there are some shrewd respondents in India who fix the price of the food items based on the amount spent on raw material, capital and economic condition of the customers. They also feel that good communication skills are required to attract customers.

Like Indian respondents, Chinese have used very little marketing/sales strategies. They fix the cost of food items based on the raw material and rent. For one shop, the rent for a 20m2 shop is 270 Euro and the cost of the ingredients and labour is on average 400 Euro a month. After calculating both and estimating the daily expense of running a business to be about 28 Euro, they fix the price of the food items.

Street food vendors in Thailand are reluctant to increase the price of food items as they are afraid of losing customers. There are no specific marketing techniques followed by the street food vendors. Still, they identify a few important techniques to be followed to roll out a successful business. They have improved the taste of dishes over the years by innovative cooking methods. Besides tasty food, hospitality, promotion, free drinking water, nominal price and vendor’s personality are the vital factors for their success in street food vending. Yet, they find difficulties in forecasting the business turnover. At times, the returns decrease due to increase in the price of ingredients. Let’s say the cost of the raw material is approximately 52 Euro-77 Euro and the turnover is about 105 Euro. The profit would be approximately 13-15 Euro. Overhead expenses increase with the higher cost of gas and water. The vendors also realise the need of interaction with customers to recognize the quality of the food served. With the valuable feedbacks from the customers they will try out means to enhance the taste. Some of them fix sales target and it may go up to 52 Euro per day.

Special Knowledge on production and buying raw materials

One of the most indispensable phases of street food vending is procuring raw material at a reasonable price and preparing food in a unique way. Indian Cities are well-known for street food vending. India is a vast country with each region having specific varieties and tastes. The study conducted by Gadi et al. in 2013 found that the youth population (in the age group of 18-24 years) prefer street food to restaurants. Street food vending in India is considered as family business and Indian vendors develop unique taste using exclusive spices. Like the vendors in India, those from China and Thailand also procure raw material from whole-sale market at a reasonable price so as to keep the price as low as possible. We have drawn a case study from each country and the same have been given below.

A. India

Shushil Parshar, 52, owns a street shop at Connaught Place, Delhi. He is a graduate. His shop that was started 20ago is famous for ‘rajma chawal’. The idea to make rajma chawal, the main dish of their shop was his father’s, he says, as the people of Delhi are fond of it.

They are quite popular in the area as their food is similar to that of home-made ones. Hygiene is on their priority list as they are aware that nobody will visit the shop if they compromise on it. The food is kept covered. They cover their head and wear gloves while serving food. Parshar feels that formal training is important, but he says, satisfying the taste buds of customers is far more important than training. They cook fresh food every day. No preservation technique is adopted since it is a small street shop. Generally, there is shortage of food during week days as the demand increases during lunch time.

The whole family is into the business. There are around five men in the shop. None of them have completed school. They don’t have any formal training in catering. But their culinary skills are tested before they are taken in. They are permanent employees and thus are provided with regular health check-ups.

Earlier, they had used a cart wheel to sell the food. Later they managed to get a place with persistent negotiation with the Delhi Development Authority officials. They are open on all days of the week from 10 am to 8 pm. For handling accounts, they maintain a day book, which ensures transparency. The price of the food depends on the cost of raw materials and labour charges. If the cost of the raw materials and labour increases, the cost of food also increases. Still they try to make it reasonable.

B. China

One of the interviewees is the owner of a fried dumpling store, male, aged around 50 years, who has completed primary school education. He started the food business in 1989, after he failed in his previous business. He basically learned cooking on the job. He simply tried making egg cakes and fried dumpling by attempting different ingredients and procedures. In the beginning, the cakes and dumplings were not very tasty, but he gradually learned the methods to make it taste better.

He started the business with a couple of relatives. Now there are about nine employees. The younger chefs working with him have been trained through formal courses. He starts working from 2 am, first making soya bean milk, and then preparing materials for dumplings. They start selling the food at around 6 am, and normally they close the store in the late afternoon. The man never received any training in finance and management. He basically determines the price of everything according to the price of the raw materials and the rent of the store.

C. Thailand

Mrs. Patchara Khumwong (Pi Mam) is a 47-year-old female and her husband has a Bachelor’s degree in early childhood education and animal science. They sell chicken rice and other dishes in front of Benjasap Village, by Ransit- Nakornnayok Road, Phathumthani province. Income per day is 137.5 Euro and profit per day is 25-37.5 Euro excluding costs of water, electricity and other incidental expenses.

Her husband lost his job at the age of 40. With the little savings he made from his job, they opened a restaurant as a supplier of food cooked elsewhere. But the business turned out to be a fiasco. Mrs. Petchara was a home maker and has never worked outside home since she graduated. After losing their business, they borrowed about 1025 Euro to resume food business because her husband likes to cook. They used to cook and sell four menus but changed to khao Man kai (Boiled Chicken with oiled Rice in Chinese style) because they need to travel far to the market to get raw materials. Her husband consults his cousins to improve the taste of the dishes. As she had been keen to improve the family’s economic status, she had undergone training at Thanyaburi Municipal about street food sanitation. She has registered herself as a street food vendor. She also got trained in the laws regarding street food vending. The training cost for a day was 2.5 to 5 Euro. She got support from the government for training.

Her husband buys fresh meat and all the ingredients at 5 am. In the afternoon Mrs. Petchara prepares food at the cart and serves the customers. The two food carts measuring 1.5 x 2.00 square meters are adjacent to each other. They sell three menus. However, she preserves pork leg stew in the freezer to enhance its taste. She records and calculates expenditures and profits. The costs are 87.5 Euro per day and electricity charges come up to 15 Euro per month. She utilises water from her home supply. On the whole, she gains profit mostly.

The municipal inspects food sanitation regularly. She wears apron to protect herself from dirt and dust. When the couple falls sick, they suspend the business temporarily and take care of each other. They had got a shark loan with 20 per cent interest as they had gone bankrupt from the previous business. She hopes to get 37.5 Euro instead of 12.5 Euro per day, which covers family expenses and loan payments. She has been selling dishes at 0.875-1 Euro each for years to her regular customers.

Mostly people apprehend that street foods are cheaper, full of dust and dirt. But, she keeps her food hygienic. Her customers are from diversified financial background. She is in this business not out of pleasure. She would rather be occupied than being unemployed. According to her, street food vending is a battling career as it demands hard work and life long struggle.

7 Special Findings on Formal Vocational Training

Concerning formal vocational training, the interviewees from the three countries also vary considerably, as the table below illustrates.

Table 2: Participation in formal vocational training

The percentage of respondents who received formal training is high in Thailand (30 per cent) in contrast to India and China. Along with formal training, all trained respondents (100 per cent) have taken post-training examination in Thailand and none of the respondents in China have taken this examination. Only five per cent of the respondents in India have taken post-training examination. All the respondents are aware of skill training/vocational education programme in Thailand and this percentage was very low in India. As many as 33 per cent of the respondents have undergone training on health and hygiene in Thailand and this is not so in the case of China and India.

In India, a majority of population in the informal/unorganised sector undergoes non-formal vocational training. This is reflected in our study where street food vendors in India and Thailand learn cooking from their family members. They preserve their family’s traditional recipes to make their dishes unique and competitive. Vendors gain knowledge about health, management and financial aspects from an established VET school in Thailand. Government also regularly provides training to street food vendors in Thailand. Street food vendors from Thailand have acquired relatively more formal training compared to their counterparts from China and India. Among the three countries, street food vendors from Thailand follow certain marketing techniques and they are aware of financial calculations. They employ smart techniques to attract the same customers regularly. Image for the street food is high in Thailand which is highlighted in our study.

8 Conclusion

Education and Training plays a crucial role in strengthening human capital to bring high productivity and quality performance (Schultz 1961; Becker 1964; Lucas 1988; Romer 1990). The availability of training provisions and skill levels of workers are significant to face global competition (Finegold & Soskice 1988; Porter 1990; Keep & Mayhew 1999; Ashton & Felstead 2001). But developing countries provide little attention to create new productive force (King 2009). This paper has reflected this issue.

Apart from producing skilled youth for the economy, addressing unemployment is a big challenge for developing countries like India, China and Thailand. China has good example where per capita coverage of education in the workforce was just 4.3 years of schooling prior to 1985 and this increased to 8.1 years in 2001 which in turn increased the capacities of china’s workforce. In the era of global competitiveness, countries realized the significance of investing in education and training to strengthen human capital. The investment in human capital in turn brings high productivity and quality performance (Marshall 1920; Schultz 1961; Becker 1964; Lucas 1988; Romer 1990).

The economic success of Japan, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan from the 1970s until mid-1990s is due to the well-trained, educated, hardworking, and conscious labour force. The policy of the above said governments (Asian Tigers) on post-secondary education, technical skill training and technically sophisticated disciplines has created technically-skilled human capital needed for rapid economic development (The World Bank 1993).

As the results from empirical investigations and analysing the same with informal learning theories and macro-economic situation, the present study clearly demonstrates that the majority of street food vendors in China, Thailand and India acquire much of their knowledge in catering and business management from work experiences. The informal learning from real work experiences instead of formal schooling plays a central role in their skill and knowledge acquisition.

In the informal sector, learning moves from situation-specific environment to different working and living environment. Learning process becomes socialization process and it happens through different groups like family, community, neighbours and friends. Informal learning provides lots of flexibility and freedom to the learners. It gives great scope for the learners to learn from others than socialization process (Eraut 2004). This is reflected in our study.

The present study and other studies have pointed out that in Thailand, along with skills required for financial services, secured worksites, access to new technologies, local governments’ (Municipality) facilitation and business services supports informal sector, especially street food vending (Liimatainen 2002; Riley & Steel 2000). NGOs also play a significant role in Thailand. They provide services to micro, small, medium size enterprises along with training. Vendors from all three countries are reluctant to increase the price of the food items due to the fear of losing customers. Among three countries, highest percentage (26 per cent) of street food vendors in India is running business for more than 20 years.

Lack of required number of training staff is another issue in China (Ministry of Statistics of China 2002). Lack of absorption capacity by the SOEs, lack of assured jobs, perceived poor quality of graduates, out-of-data curriculum are some of the problems ITIs face in India and China. There are various regulations for enterprise training in China (Cooke 2005; Mehrotra 2014b). Vocational Education Law in China provides ample opportunity for the provincial and local governments to integrate vocational training with better planning and resource allocation. While some provincial/local governments implement the Vocational Education Law well, some others take little effort for better execution. Overall lack of monitoring mechanism retards the proper implementation of law (Cooke 2001; Cooke 2002a).

This can be emulated in India and China. As mentioned in this study NSFVA in India and NGOs in Thailand also assist informal sector employers’ association in skill training by reducing cost of the training needs assessment, establish competency standards, develop curricula, and certify skills obtained in traditional apprenticeship (Adams 2008). Our study brought out that the respondents have entered into street food vending at the age of 18 in India and China, none of the respondents in India has undergone VET. In this situation, NGOs can consider providing a non-formal Vocational Education and Training at their working site to make young informal sector employees as skilled workers.

As this study points out, research on skill development in informal settings is of major interest not only for researchers, but also for politicians and all actors in the labour market. The comparison between different countries can additionally extend the value of research by cross-country learning and adaptation of best practice.

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Citation

Gengaiah, U., Li, J., Hanvatananukul, S., Prontadavit, N. & Pilz, M. (2018). Skill development in the informal sector in China, Thailand and India – A case study of street food vendors. In: TVET@Asia, issue 10, 1-21. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue10/gengaiah_etal_tvet10.pdf (retrieved 31.01.2018).

The paper focusses on the need for quality in vocational training institutions in India. The need for integrating Quality Management principles in effective functioning of vocational schools (Industrial Training Institutes) is emphasised. In a first step the discussion about the quality of vocational education and training in India will be described. In the following chapters findings of two own empirical studies of ITIs conducted in different states of India are presented. One survey focusses on the ordinary or regular ITIs and the other on upgraded ITIs, the so called Centres of Excellence (COE). Our findings highlight the lack of application of quality principles in these institutions and, especially in ordinary ITIs, problems with infrastructure and equipment and sometimes with the recruitment of qualified teaching staff.

On the basis of the findings we will discuss an appropriate Quality Management model which could be applied. Further, a need for research in quality implications for ITIs and cross-country collaboration are highlighted.

Keywords: India, vocational education, TVET, Quality, ITI

1 Introduction

Vocational education and training in India is an issue and task of big numbers in comparison to many other Asian countries except China (Tara & Kumar 2016; Pilz 2016a). According to the National Policy on Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 (Government of India 2015) the number of young people who potentially enter the work force every year is estimated to be 26 million. Assuming an average labour participation rate of 90% (male) and 30% (female), at least 16 million persons will enter workforce and they all, except those opting for higher education (about 12%), need to acquire skills. This will add another 105 million persons to be skilled in the next seven years. Thus, it can be seen that 105 million fresh entrants to the workforce over the next seven years (by 2022) will need to be skilled (Singh 2012). In addition, 298 million of existing farm and non-farm sector workers will need to be skilled, reskilled and upskilled. Thus, appropriate infrastructure needs to be created keeping in view sheer numbers, sectoral division and spatial disbursal across the country. This is clearly brought out in the policy document thus: Foreign Governments, corporate and agencies will also be encouraged to set up skill centres and universities as well as participate in content creation, design of curricula and delivery of training. Exchange and capacity building programmes for teachers, administrators and students will be facilitated (Government of India 2015).

This is also reiterated by Chenoy (2013, 199) who says “… with the opening up of the economy and increase in exports, improving the productivity of the workforce is a key challenge for many corporations and entities in India. Further, as the Indian economy grows, a large number of skilled persons will be required to sustain this growth. Current studies indicate that net enrolment in vocational courses in India is about 5.5 million per year. A mere 2% of Indian workers are formally skilled.” Further, Chenoy (2013) quoting from the 11^th Plan Document mentions, that India is uniquely positioned to take advantage of this favorable demographic profile to take that giant leap from being a developing country to a developed one in a decade from now. However, leveraging this ‘demographic dividend’ (the average age of an Indian would be 29 by 2020 compared to 37 in China and 45 in western Europe; Chenoy 2013, 199) is easier said than done on account of the poor level of skills possessed by the vast majority of those joining the workforce each year – a situation that has arisen owing to high rates of school dropouts, inadequate skills training capacity, a negative perception around skilling, and low employability of even those holding professional qualifications, such as degrees in different engineering disciplines (Chenoy 2013). An additional issue is that these outcomes vary from state to state. Also Mehrotra (2014b, 367) noted: „Quantity & Quality: Policies to meet the twin challenges of employability in Indian labour market“.

We are facing this aspect in the paper. First we will give a short introduction of the political background before explaining the major training institution in India, the so called Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs). Followed by this we will briefly describe the state of research on the quality in the ITIs before describing two of our own empirical studies.

2 Political background

In March 2009, the Government of India announced a National Policy on Skill Development, laying down the framework within which it wanted skills-related training to be conducted. The Policy clarified the roles that different stakeholders – government, industry, trade unions and civil society – would need to play for the creation of a skills ecosystem in India.

Making a departure from the past, the National Skill Development Policy (Government of India 2009) clearly specified that skills-related training should become outcome-focused and linked to jobs and employability. The policy stated that access to training should be available to all, particularly those at the bottom of the pyramid. It said that the government should complement private sector initiatives in skill development and emphasized the need for short-term, industry-relevant courses. Skills and knowledge were considered as the driving forces of economic growth and social development for any country.

However, the National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship 2015 (Government of India 2015) supersedes the policy of 2009. As stated in the document, the primary objective of this policy is to meet the challenge of skilling at scale with speed, standard (quality) and sustainability. It aims to provide an umbrella framework to all skilling activities being carried out within the country, to align them to common standards and link skilling with demand centres. In addition to laying down the objectives and expected outcomes, the policy also identifies the overall institutional framework which will act as a vehicle to reach the expected outcomes.

The 12^th Five Year Plan document (Planning Commission 2013) clearly states that there is an urgent need to mainstream skill formation in the formal education system and at the same time for innovative approaches focussing on skill creation outside the formal education system. Although the Coordinated Action on Skill Development has brought about a paradigm shift in addressing the issues of relevance in skill development, the gaps in the skill development are to be identified so as to achieve the objectives in terms of quantity and quality while building on the foundation (Sodhi 2014). Further, some of the areas that merit attention, according to the Plan are

(a) the challenge of reaching out non-formal sector;

(b) putting in place a National Skills Qualification Framework which lays down different level of skills required by industry, which allows multiple points of entry and exit, which recognizes prior learning, and which allows for mobility across different levels;

(c) putting in place a permanent institutional framework, entrusted with the requisite authority and resources, which is responsible solely for skill development in the country; and

(d) support to students in terms of access to bank loans on soft terms that are linked to their placement.

3 Industrial Training Institutes

In India, ITIs are the major training ground for skilled manpower (Kumar 2016; Venkatram 2012). At present there exist 11.964 ITIs (Public 2.284 and Private 9.680) in the country (DGET 2016). With a mere 59 institutions in 1956, the number of ITIs frog-leaped to today’s numbers indicating the extent of demand for employable industrial trades as well as the realization of policy makers to promote building a professional workforce to meet the industry demands. This is also reflected in the increase in the seating capacity of ITIs which was a modest 388.000 in 1992 to a figure of 1.69 million in 2014 (DGET 2016).

Training is imparted in 126 trades (73 Engineering + 48 Non-Engineering + 5 exclusively for visually impaired) of regular maximum duration of two years. The students learn the profession exclusively inside the training center. Theoretical instruction is still the dominating teaching and learning style, even more practical orientated forms like training workshops are implemented during the last few years in many ITIs (Kumar 2016).

The so called National Trade Certificate – nationally & internationally recognized under the aegis of National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) – is awarded to successful trainees. Central Government is entrusted with responsibility of framing the overall policies, norms/standards and examination for vocational training while day-to-day administration of ITIs rests with the State Governments/Union Territories Administrations.

However, the quality of technical and vocational education imparted in these institutions in the country has been a matter of concern among policy makers. The challenge is to facilitate ITIs to keep pace with the fast growing technological demands for industry and the expanding universe of knowledge. Further, such an attempt to enhance the quality of training and training infrastructure through improved design and delivery system especially in the areas of curriculum development, capacity-building of trainers and course managers, state-of-the-art training infrastructure, industry-ready student evaluation system among others would, more importantly, have positive employment outcomes of graduates from the vocational training system especially in the existing industrial and economic scenarios where considerably high demand for professional technicians exist.

4 Current research into quality at ITIs

The quality of India’s VET system has been subject to considerable criticism in the past, which has also had an impact on the activities of foreign companies in India (Pilz & Li 2014). For example, in its Efficiency Study Report on Indian ITIs, the International Labour Organization (ILO) concluded that the employability of those completing training at state-run ITIs was poor and that only 30% to 40% found employment or became self-employed on completion of their training (ILO 2003, 31). The fact that the training provided does not match actual labour market demand has also drawn criticism. Each year, for example, in ITIs graduate almost half the total number of welders, mechanics and electronic engineers already in employment in the Indian labour market.

A research report commissioned by FICCI (2006) surveyed 69 ITIs and concluded that many lack the right technical equipment and that a shortage of funding mean there is little scope for improvement. It also noted a shortage of trained instructors and few opportunities for in-service training.

A study by the National Skill Development Corporation of initial and continuing training for instructors (NSDC n.d.) found that most instructors at India’s ITIs have received no pedagogical training and are not, therefore, adequately prepared to teach.

A more recent (2014) study of almost 150 state-run ITIs found that they were appropriately equipped (Joshi, Pandey & Sahoo 2014, 95), but that there was a shortage of instructors, that instructors often lacked appropriate skills, and that many were employed on part-time or fixed-term contracts (105 ff.). It also found that more than 15% of all those who started training dropped out before completing the course (101) and that about a third were unemployed on completion of their training (103).

In a study of learning opportunities in fisher families in the state of Orissa, Pilz and Wilmshöfer (2015) found that ITIs were poorly equipped and that potential students had to travel long distances to access them. They also found a shortage of courses geared to the needs of students and the local employment market.

Finally, research into street food vendors in two states also found that the formal training provision offered by ITIs did not meet the needs of potential trainees (Pilz, Uma & Venkatram 2015).

Given the vital importance of vocational training, it is surprising that there is so little by way of robust research findings in the area of quality.

5 Description and discussion of two research studies

Considering the contradiction of the big issue of quality of it is in the political discussion in India on the one hand and the rather limited number of empirical findings about the quality of ITIs on the other hand, we have conducted two studies: one in normal/regular ITIs and one in upgraded ITIs.

5.1 A study of regular ITIs

Interviews were conducted in 2014 at state-run ITIs in the states of Karnataka, Orissa and Tamil Nadu and in New Delhi; these regions were selected to reflect cultural and economic diversity. Selection of and initial contact with ITIs was carried out by local partner institutions. 15 case studies were investigated, representing different institution sizes and both urban and rural settings. The aim of the study was not to reach generalizable conclusions about the quality of training at Indian ITIs but to make an initial exploratory contribution to fleshing out their concept of quality.[i]

To gather data and information about the understanding and practice of quality assurance in Indian ITIs, we conducted and documented interviews with their principals. These individuals have responsibility for all processes and information relating to quality within their institutions and act as intermediaries between state bodies, who set the requirements, and the instructors, who implement these requirements. Interviewing this group enabled us to gain in-depth insight into the framework for and practice of quality assurance.

The design of the guided interviews was theoretically based on the internationally acknowledged concept of quality assurance in vocational education and training adopted by the European Training Foundation (Galvão 2014). This concept defines quality assurance using three dimensions: defining quality; quality assessment; and quality enhancement. The first stage of the study involved establishing the principals’ own understanding of quality. The second stage was to determine how they assessed the current quality of the training at their ITIs. The final stage was to gauge the potential for enhancing quality.

Findings: defining quality

The survey of principals showed that their understanding of quality is very strongly output-oriented. They regard employability and stakeholder satisfaction as the key markers of training quality, a view that reflects the requirements of the Indian government. Quality is associated with both output and income – that is, the skills and expertise acquired by trainees and their opportunities on the labour market, with a focus on the overlap between trainees’ skills and the requirements of the labour market.

“Our quality is measured by what our trainees have learned here, we focus on the output. When they get a job afterwards, then we know they had quality training.” (ITI Karnataka)

“The performance of our students is our indicator of quality – their practical and theoretical skills, as well as their behaviour and way of thinking.” (ITI Orissa)

In line with this definition of quality, the quality indicators used in the ITIs surveyed focus almost exclusively on using tests and examinations to assess trainees’ knowledge. Other commonly cited indicators include employment rates on completion of training at an ITI, drop-out rates, and completion rates.

Findings: quality assessment

The input factors involved in quality of vocational training include instructors, infrastructure and equipment, and curriculum.

Most of the principals surveyed were satisfied with the training their instructors had, but some expressed concerns about their motivation, the currency of their knowledge, and the availability of adequate numbers of skilled instructors. In half the cases we investigated, principals were appointing external instructors on a temporary basis to fill vacancies. However, a number reported that these temporary staff often lacked the necessary skills, so their appointment did not enhance training quality. To ensure the long-term teaching quality, they said, it was important that instructors received regular in-service training and that both their technical knowledge and their teaching methods were updated. There was little agreement, however, on implementation of in-service training, suggesting that such training is inadequate and non-standardised.

“It is essential that the trainers are well prepared, but not so much regarding what kind of diploma they have but if they can teach and motivate the students.” (ITI Delhi)

“They get a few days of training every three or four years, but only in technical aspects and not in teaching methods.” (ITI Orissa)

Principals are of the opinion that the infrastructure and equipment of ITIs could be improved. In most cases, there is a shortage of machinery, tools and space to teach modern technologies. There are also no regulations on maintaining machinery.

“I think we can be satisfied with what we have, compared to other institutions. But there is still a lot of room for improvement.” (ITI Karnataka)

“We still require more machinery and updated technology. Therefore, we are not completely satisfied yet.” (ITI Tamil Nadu)

Principals also addressed curriculum quality and were critical of the fact that curricula were extremely theoretical and bore no relation to practice or modern technologies.

“We are using the latest curriculum, but we are not satisfied with it. It is too vast, with too much theory and not enough practical parts.” (ITI Tamil Nadu)

“We are not satisfied with the curriculum. It is not up to the modern standard, it just contains basic skill training.” (ITI Delhi)

The ITIs surveyed placed particular emphasis on the smooth integration of trainees in the labour market, with a focus on positive outcomes. Some had a dedicated member of staff whose main role was to coordinate job placement. These placement officers maintain contacts with companies and act as the interface between potential employers and newly qualified trainees. ITIs also used alumni associations as networking platforms for former trainees.

“We have constant contact [with] industries. They come here and hire our students. We have a placement officer, who informs [us] about the openings and visits the companies.” (ITI Orissa)

Findings: potential for quality enhancement

Interviewees suggested ways of improving the quality of the training institutions. The key, they said, was to recruit enough skilled instructors. However, while higher salaries helped, the main obstacle was government constraints.

“We require more manpower to improve the quality, but the government is not flexible enough to provide more staff.” (ITI Tamil Nadu)

Interviewees also frequently referred in comments about equipment and infrastructure to the political and bureaucratic obstacles hampering their efforts to improve the situation.

5.2 A study on upgraded ITIs

Towards producing technicians of world standard, the Government of India launched a programme of upgrading 500 ITIs during 2005-06 at the rate of 100 ITIs each year, and currently 1896 government ITIs have been upgraded into so-called Centres of Excellence (COE) at the national level (Rao, Sahoo & Ghosh 2014). Under this programme appropriate infrastructure and equipment are provided. Further, the programme has the overall strategy of enlisting cooperation with Industry and Chamber of Commerce and to create a public-private partnership model for designing and implementing the scheme. The salient features of the scheme of upgrading ITIs include the introduction of multi-skilling courses of one year duration followed by advanced/specialized modular courses through an industry-wise cluster approach with multi-entry and multi-exit provisions. Most of ITI’s impart training in engineering trades like instrument mechanic, electrician, fitter, plumber, diesel mechanic, Computer Operator & Programming Assistant (COPA), electrical mechanic, Information Technology, Mechanic Computer Hardware, Refrigeration & Air Conditioning, Turner, Welder, etc. Establishing Public Private Partnership in the form of Institute Management Committees (IMCs) is envisaged to ensure greater and active involvement of industry in various aspects of training.

An IMC is constituted for each selected ITI. The IMC is converted by the State Government into a Society under relevant Societies Registration Act. The IMC registered as a society is entrusted with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the ITI under the scheme. The composition of IMC, is as follows (DGET 2014): Industry Partner or its representative as Chairperson, four other members from local Industry to be nominated by the Industry Partner in such a way that the IMC is broad based, five members nominated by the State Government and the principal of the ITI, as ex-officio member secretary of the IMC Society.

A study has been launched to assess the progress of the programme of COE in the South Indian state of Karnataka (Tara, Kumar & Ramaswamy 2011). For the study purposes, six ITIs out of 36 ITIs upgraded to COEs formed the sample. The sample was chosen so as to provide regional representation, coverage of trade and socio-economic backwardness of the region. The main objective of the study was to assess the overall effectiveness of ITIs with respect to methods adopted for identification of trades that had industry demand (by way of discussions with industry representatives, IMC members and ITI functionaries), existing infrastructure facilities, capacity of trainers, curriculum development, among others. The ultimate goal was to arrive at an understanding of the level of quality in the functioning of ITIs. Personal visits were made to the selected ITIs and detailed interviews were carried out with the key functionaries including principal, training officers and others with a set of semi-structured interview schedules and check lists. In this respect, the study team was taken by the key functionaries to classrooms, workshops, office areas, storerooms, common facility areas of the establishments.

The course structure and the syllabi of all the course components namely, Broad Based Basic Training (BBBT), Advanced Module and Specialized Module under COE are prepared by a panel of experts under the aegis of NCVT, Government of India and the ITIs have clearly defined guidelines regarding following the course syllabi in total. In this regard, our discussions with the key functionaries of sample ITIs were held.

The principals and instructors of the sample ITIs were asked to give their opinions regarding the system of evaluation presently adopted and to offer suggestions for any modifications. As students are the critical elements of ITIs, a cross section of students were interviewed to elicit their views about the programme as well as the problems encountered by them.

Furthermore, a cross section of industry partners were interviewed to elicit their opinions with regard to the Internship programmes of ITIs, their role in teaching in the courses, training of Instructors at ITIs by the industry experts, etc.

Placement of trainees is a crucial indicator of the value of the course from the point of view of student’s career aspirations and more importantly, their livelihood. Moreover, the popularity and demand for a course is also a function of the quality of training imparted and the reputation of the institution offering the course. In this light, prompt and decent placement of successful trainees is an avowed objective of ITIs. In this respect, efforts were made to elicit responses regarding the prospects of placement of trainees in the sample ITIs.

The major findings of the study at a glance are:

1. Though COE was a well-conceived programme, lack of awareness regarding its uniqueness and usefulness among parents, students and industry had resulted in very poor demand for the courses as the course had not achieved a brand image.
2. While some of the sample COEs were endowed with adequate training infrastructure including latest tools and equipment, there were others which lacked such training infrastructure. Interestingly, older COEs as compared to recent ones were relatively well equipped in this regard. Most of the Instructors reported that the training they had received was quite beneficial and stated that there was an urgent need for participating in such programmes on a regular basis in order to keep pace with the latest advances in the industrial sectors. There were no career growth opportunities for the Instructors which was a de-motivating factor.
3. Findings regarding the status of girl students in the sample COEs indicate low intake of girls against sanctioned seats. Further the drop out and pass rates also show a poor profile of girl students. For instance in one of the sample COEs, though there was a sanctioned intake provision for 32 girl students none were admitted during the reference period. In another sample COE, out 11 girls admitted, 3 had dropped out while none passed. The findings clearly reveal the urgent need for emphasizing the need for focused attention to girl students in the training transaction, placement activities and providing a social ambience and support that would enhance their self-esteem and motivate them to accomplish excellence in their studies. Interestingly, women trainees are generally not preferred by the industry as the tasks involve handling of heavy material and equipment besides working in inconvenient shifts. Further, women have to work in close proximity with boysmen which is culturally not acceptable.
4. The role of the IMCs appeared to be weak in many sample COEs and limited to only a few issues such as financial approvals, procurement related matters and to some extent student placements. IMCs appeared to have only advisory role without adequate powers and minimal roles in the areas of staff training, constant interaction with industry to generate demand for COE students, instilling confidence among students through regular interaction with them and providing all necessary support and guidance.
5. The major problems experienced by students in the course of their study included comprehension difficulties due to poor English knowledge and communication skills, no or inadequate stipend, lack of hostel facilities and inadequate transport.

6 Discussion

From the research findings given above, it becomes clear that the existing training courses, offered through ITIs, focus only on theory rather than practical components. In this context, it could also be said that the link between general and higher education is weak. It does not meet the future skill requirements of the labour market. It further complicates the transition from education into the labour market. Thus, the interaction with the labour market becomes clear. The labour market is characterized by a high degree of liberality in India. Flexibility and high turnover are two aspects that have been mentioned repeatedly in many studies. They make an extensive and therefore expensive company training to a high risk investment because of the deferred migration risk. In addition, it is important to remember that in India, more than 90 percent of workers are allocated in the unorganized sector (Singh 2012, 181; Agrawal 2012, 457). This means that there are no regulated working conditions (e.g. activities in small family businesses or as day labourers). A corollary is that only about two percent of the workforce has undergone any formal vocational qualification (Singh 2012, 181). As a consequence, it is clear that the employers seeking workers must either focus on a relatively small group of more theoretically qualified ITI graduates or on unskilled assistants who cannot accept challenging tasks.

The society’s take on educational programmes must also be considered. Vocational education has a very low reputation, especially when it comes to manual activities. The reason for this situation is the caste system in India and its influence on the culture (cf. detailed Pilz 2016b). From many studies it has become clear that vocational training and trained laborers will be accepted in the future only if the social opinion regarding manual workers changes. In particular, this has to be reflected in their pay and career prospects (Pilz 2016a).

But what are the detailed conclusions in the case of the ITIs themselves? What emerges out of the findings is that despite several efforts of up-gradation (Singh 2012), ITIs have not been able to meet the expected quality standards. Against this backdrop, it is of highest importance to address the issue of quality of vocational training imparted to the students in vocational training institutes, more precisely in the ITIs. The learners that come out of these institutions go into the world of work and hence it is imperative that the quality of inputs provided to those students must be of high calibre – this implies the adoption of a Quality Management System.

Our data have shown that (like in many other countries) financing, infrastructure, equipment, teacher training and teacher payment are crucial aspects to enhance quality. Due to the fact that these parameters have been discussed in India for a while already (ILO 2003; FICCI 2006; Joshi, Pandey & Sahoo 2014; Sukumar & Kumar 2015), we will focus our discussion here exclusively on the topic of quality awareness.

Our data have shown clearly, that first of all a complex approach as a basis for quality awareness is missing. In the past, only a reporting on “hard data” like entrance data, drop-out rates and job placement rates to the school boards and ministries was common. To enhance the quality awareness we recommend a compulsory and much broader approach of quality management. The concept of quality management implies creating a set of policies and actions with the support of the direction which facilitates the mobilization of the ITIs towards a quality culture that goes beyond mere certification process in itself. It implies a commitment to a new way of doing things in order to achieve objectives from its inception. The quality problem stems out of the twin dimensions, viz., (a) those trained do not possess the competencies for employability (either core or soft skills) and (b) there is a mismatch between what is demanded and the skills supplied (Mehrotra 2014a). Our findings (see above) give clear evidence that both dimensions are of high relevance. Firstly to enhance the internal processes in the ITIs, but also in relation to labour market aspects and the transition from education and training into the (formal or informal) labour market. If the teaching is of poor quality and the competences trained in the ITI programmes are not facing the needs of the labour market, vocational training will not be recognised by employers as suitable.

Hence from the point of view of Quality Management, quality is everything that an organization does, in the eyes of its customers, which will encourage them to consider an organization as the best (Tara 2003; Sukumar & Kumar 2015). From this perspective Sadgrove’s Quality model (1996) appears to be relevant for the Indian case and adoptable for its application in the ITI domain. In this respect the elements would include (a) Focus on student, industry; (b) Developing professionally trained teachers/instructors who are constantly trained to upgrade technically to match the industry demand; (c) Clear and formal efforts to include all the stakeholders in Quality Management planning exercises; (d) Constantly measuring and recording the programme efficiency and effectiveness; and (e) Commitment to teamwork which must permeate in the entire organizational structure through effective team building, addressed in the ‘process’ section (faculty development training programmes).

To implement these principles a differentiation between internal and external efficiency is helpful:

Indicators for internal efficiency:

1. Performance and outputs,
2. Number of students enrolled; retained & successfully graduated,
3. Utilization of training seats,
4. Capital assets and human resources in producing these outputs.

Indicators for external efficiency:

1. Impact of training on employability of graduates,
2. Student capability to utilize knowledge and skills acquired during training.

In order to bring quality on both levels in ITIs, we recommend the following set of operationalized criteria for quality measurement. To do so we adopted an Input-Process-Output Model. Furthermore, an attempt is made to include variables that may be considered under each of the elements in the model.

Input

1. Student selection process,
2. Student profiles, student enrolment,
3. Teachers’ level of education and training,
4. Curriculum,
5. Infrastructure facilities, IT inputs, equipment-machinery,
6. Financial outlays, support,
7. Examination pattern.

Process

1. Curriculum revisions,
2. Faculty development training programmes (on methods of team-play, involving instructors/trainers, students, course managers and external experts towards achieving a cohesive and functional participation of stakeholders at various implementational levels),
3. Teaching methodologies,
4. Provision of new machinery,
5. Industry intervention (imparting training by experts from industry as well as members of IMC in, course planning and facilitating students and instructors transact curriculum and to provide practical training. In addition their expertise will be utilised for updating of curriculum from time to time and to provide apprenticeship training to students.),
6. Internship in industry for students,
7. Teacher-industry interface,
8. Additional skill development programmes for students like communication and personality development, preparedness to face job interviews.

Output

1. Improved retention of students (reduction in dropping out),
2. Improved performance metrics,
3. Better qualified and better equipped teachers,
4. Strengthened industry-ITI interface,
5. Improved placements of students and improved utilization of assets,
6. Teacher and student satisfaction with the processes,
7. Attitude change among students, teachers and management and potential employers of students,
8. Assessment of employable skills by industry.

The Sadgrove Model essentially focuses on ‘quality’ in a holistic manner, symbiotically combining the five critical elements of focus on customer (here students), team building, proficiency in carrying out tasks, documentation for optimal decision making and communicating and educating all the stakeholders. Team building involves active participation of all the players including principals, instructors/trainers, students, parents and other stakeholders together in all critical aspects of programme implementation. In this regard, specific teams needs to be created to conceive and manage specific tasks.

Also it is essential that a composite ‘quality index’ derived out of the expected performance of critical elements be evolved in order to monitor the levels of outcomes and to facilitate mid-course corrections.

The adoption of the above model to ITIs would certainly help to achieve the twin goals set forth by the Indian Government of enhancing the quality of the work force, providing employment and in the long run, achieving the competitive edge.

7 Perspectives

In future, sharing experience will be increasingly important, enabling India to access the experience of other Asian countries with quality management. However, shared learning based on the VET systems of contrasting countries will also be valuable (Pilz & Pierenkemper 2014). For example, there has been a steady increase over many years in exchanges between India and Germany (Preuß 2013; FICCI & BIBB 2013). At the level of research into VET systems, there has been fruitful cooperation between individual Indian universities and the German Research Center for Comparative Vocational Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.), based at the University of Cologne (http://www.great.uni-koeln.de/en/great/).This cooperation has produced a new book on aspects of vocational training in India (Pilz 2016b), which gives a solid overview of the current state of research, findings and trends. It is likely that this research will be developed in future.

It would be most ideal for Indian and German partners to work together to establish quality standards of vocational education being offered, especially in ITIs as the students will be transiting into the world of work. Thus, in an internationally competitive training environment, the implementation of Quality Management Systems in VET can provide a comparative advantage in preparing the quality workforce required for micro and macro- economic reforms. The vocational training institutions that are quality driven will foster innovation and improvement and thus can have a strategic advantage in achieving the goal of skill development.

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[i]We would like to express our thanks to M.A. Verena Becker for data-collecting. The Center of Modern Indian Studies at the University of Cologne (CMIS-UC) funded this research project through the programme “New Passage to India” of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD).

Citation

Tara, N., Kumar, S., & Pilz, M. (2016). Quality of VET in India: The case of Industrial Training Institutes. In: TVET@Asia, issue 7, 1-17. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue7/tara_etal_tvet7.pdf (retrieved 2.8.2016).