For Indonesia, as the most populous ASEAN country, improving and assuring TVET quality is one major goal of educational policy. Different strategies are in place to bring learning outcomes closer to labour market requirements and to even out regional disparities. This article presents QMSiS as a practical example from a vocational high school in Makassar. Prior to the introduction of this quality management system (QMS), school quality was deterred by problems such as a lack of customer orientation, incoherent teaching activities, inefficiencies in school administration and a lack of student involvement. QMSiS combines characteristics of ISO 9001:2008 with the concept Q2E against the background of the eight Indonesian education standards. ISO 9001:2008 is internationally recognized, offers a flexible quality management approach for different contexts and can also be certified in Indonesia. Q2E is a concept that particularly addresses quality areas and requirements in educational institutions. Together, these two systems can help vocational schools to develop their own certified QMS with the due special regard for educational inputs, processes and outputs.Under QMSiS, internal and external school processes and the overall school performance in terms of industry linkages and placement of TVET graduates were improved at SMKN (Public Secondary Vocational School) 4 Makassar. After these positive developments, the experiences with QMSiS were disseminated to 16 other vocational schools in South and West Sulawesi. These results show that QMSiS can help vocational schools in the Indonesian context to achieve better TVET quality provided that all relevant school stakeholders are involved in the process.

1 Introduction

With a population of more than 250 million, ensuring the provision of education and training that match labour market needs is of particular importance in Indonesia. Among the population, 43,3% of them are 25 or younger and thus are at the beginning of their work life or will enter the labour market soon (CIA, 2014). The youth unemployment rate has been above 20% during the last years and is the highest within ASEAN (ILO & ADB 2014, 58).

Furthermore, the economic structure is developing towards the supply of more sophisticated products and services. The Ministry of Industry identified three key sectors for future growth: Agro-Industry, Information Technology Industry and Transportation Industry (Kim 2010, 169). To meet these development targets and to enhance its competitive profile within the projected ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), the country needs to upgrade medium-skilled and high-skilled labour supply (ILO & ADB 2014, 53). Among other reforms, this requires improvements in TVET quality.

This article serves several purposes. At the beginning, it provides a short overview of current quality challenges and recent reforms in TVET in Indonesia. This overview is based on a review of international policy and project documents in the area of skills development. Furthermore, the article is especially directed to regional vocational school staff interested in the implementation of quality management approaches in practice. While there are clear goals for improving education and training quality in the national education standards, the concrete process towards achieving these goals is much less clear. Therefore, the article also presents experiences from a practical example. SMKN 4, a vocational high school in Makassar/Sulawesi, implemented a quality management system that combines aspects of ISO 9001:2008 and Q2E against the background of the national education standards in 2011. The paper first presents the underlying quality management concepts and explains how they were combined to fit the needs of SMKN 4 Makassar. Subsequently, the article illustrates the school context with its previous quality challenges, the realization of the quality management system and what results could be achieved so far.

Finally, the article shows how this QM approach was disseminated to other schools of the region and discusses recommendations for the future.

2 Challenges and strategies for better TVET quality in Indonesia

Despite being the largest economy in Southeast Asia with annual growth rates above 5%, Indonesia’s competitiveness could be affected by its weaker position in education and skill development (ADB 2014, 60-64). Since the spread of international student performance studies such as PISA, TIMSS or PIRLS, there has been an ongoing discussion about education quality. Although Indonesia managed to improve the overall scores, they remain low compared to other Southeast Asian neighbouring countries (ADB 2014, 70; UNESCO, 2014; MoEC 2013). As a response to these challenges, the Indonesian government increased educational spending to over 20% of the total budget (Kim 2010, 179).

Although large-scale examinations of learning outcomes mostly concern younger learners, TVET is not excluded from the quality debate in Indonesia. Skill surveys showed that vocational secondary education is one of the major problems for skill development. Thus, skill enhancement and hence the development of vocational schools are a key reform area (Di Gropello, 2011, 147f.; Kim 2010, 179f.) As for all school levels, an increase in educational spending and policy reforms should contribute to higher enrolment rates. The ratio of enrolment in technical and vocational education as a share of total upper secondary education enrolment was 42,3 % in 2011 with an upward trend (World Data Bank, 2014). This corresponds to the “SMK[1]Roadmap 2010-2014” by the Directorate of Vocational Education at the Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC). This strategy should lead to a general increase in TVET supply by raising the number of vocational schools, vocational teachers and students. Ultimately, the proportion of general senior secondary to vocational senior secondary schools should be reversed to a ratio of 33% (general secondary schools) to 67% (vocational secondary schools) (Kim 2010, 185).

However, if Indonesia wants to succeed in upgrading its economy towards more sophisticated products and services, it needs a high number of workers with sufficient skill levels (ILO & ADB, 2014, 53). A comprehensive skill report by the World Bank showed that the most lack skills among younger workers include creativity, English language, leadership, problem-solving and computer skills (Di Gropello, 2011, 144). When it comes to graduates of secondary vocational education, the report shows that employers from both the manufacturing and the service sector expressed their need for more and better generic skills such as thinking skills, behavioural skills and the ability to work independently and in teams (ibid., 130, 147).

Looking at current TVET policies in Indonesia, we can see that the understanding of what constitutes TVET quality is highly connected to the fulfilment of international standards, third-party certification of institutions and the creation of stronger links with enterprises. The targets of the Directorate of Vocational Education for better SMK quality include an increased accreditation rate of SMK, a higher number of schools that meet international quality standards (e.g. ISO 9001/2008), a wide-spread use of ICT and also the development of more SMK into “teaching industry” schools (ibid, 187). Being a teaching-industry school means that SMK specialize in the production of specific products, parts etc. for regional enterprises. This way, they establish closer links with companies, generate additional income and bring about more practical relevance to education and training.

A major achievement with regard to the Indonesian education system was the introduction of a national qualifications framework. The Indonesian Qualifications Framework (IQF)[2]sets competency-based learning goals for all education and training courses. It should serve as a comparison tool for improving international labour mobility to and from Indonesia (Santoso 2013, 12). While the promotion of international labour mobility is an important purpose of the IQF, its first focus is to help build confidence of domestic employers into the national qualifications (SED-TVET 2014, 7). The relevance of the IQF to the TVET quality challenge is twofold: On the one hand, it seeks to provide more clarity on the expectations of workers at different skill levels. On the other hand, by providing a common reference scheme, it should also contribute to a reduction of quality disparities between regions. As the mere existence of the IQF does not ensure high training quality, the Ministry of Manpower and Transmigration has developed the Indonesian Quality Training Framework (IQTF). After its implementation, this set of standards for TVET providers should ensure that training programs indeed lead to the targeted qualification levels (ibid., 8).

As the low quality of Indonesian teachers is seen as one major reason for the poor performance in international learning assessments, teacher development is another area of reform (Jalal et al., 2009). The 2005 Teacher Law defined minimum qualification standards for teachers and significantly raised teacher salaries (Verger, Altinyelken & de Koning 2013, 22). This made the teaching profession a more attractive career choice. The implementation of the Teacher Law was complemented by the BERMUTU[3] project (BERMUTU= Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teaching Upgrading). The main goal of BERMUTU was the improvement of teacher quality through the enhancement of their professional and pedagogical skills (ibid.). So far, it seems that the pay raise and other reforms have not led to a real improvement in learning outcomes. According to Chang et al. (2014, 4) and MoEC (2013, 86), many teachers still resort to a lecture-style way of instruction. On the one hand, this kind of teaching is easy to manage and requires less time as the teacher provides only one informational input for the entire class and there is limited time for student discussions or trial and error learning. On the other hand, it hardly stimulates the development of problem-solving skills and independent thinking on the student side (ibid.).

From the aforementioned developments, we can see that the existing quality challenges are well-recognized and there are a number of top-down strategies to improve TVET quality in Indonesia. These include an increase in educational spending, the definition of national education standards and the development of a national qualification framework with competency goals for all skill levels. These top-down measures now need to be filled with appropriate activities at the bottom level within the increased autonomy that Indonesian schools enjoy after decentralization reforms.

3 QMSiS as a combination of ISO 9001:2008 and Q2E

This section will explain more detail the underlying quality management approaches of QMSiS at SMKN 4 Makassar. QMSiS combines characteristics of ISO 9001:2008 with the concept Q2E against the background of the Indonesian education standards.

Figure 1: QMSiS as a combination of ISO 9001:2008, Q2E and the objectives of the national education standards

ISO 9001 is a quality management standard that is internationally recognized. The latest version is 2008; the next revision is expected by the end of 2015 (ISO 2014). ISO 9001:2008 defines quality management requirements that should be fulfilled by organizations that seek to offer high-quality products or services. These requirements are divided into five main business processes:

• Quality management system
• Management responsibility
• Resource management
• Product realization
• Measurement, analysis and improvement

Each process is then structured into further sub-sections; for instance the process “management responsibility” consists of

• Management commitment
• Customer focus
• Quality policy
• Planning
• Responsibility, authority and communication
• Management review

The following figure shows how the five business processes should contribute to a constant improvement of the quality management system:

Figure 2: The ISO 9001:2008 quality management process cycle
(© DIN ISO 9001:2008)

The customers in this case are the students, parents and local industries of SMKN 4 Makassar. They have different demands to the education and training services provided by the school. Based upon these demands, it is the management’s responsibility to plan and implement the annual school strategies and activities against the background of the school resources (infrastructure, staff, financial means etc.). On this basis, the school develops its products, i.e. education and training in the different professional profiles. The internal results and the external feedback from the school’s customers are continuously measured and are then taken into consideration for future planning and implementation of training services.

For each of the business processes and corresponding sub-sections, SMKN 4 Makassar defined goals and guidelines against the background of the national education standards in a quality management handbook. As a prerequisite for obtaining the ISO 9001 certification, the organization must be able to prove the documentation of its QM procedures. Therefore, SMKN 4 Makassar developed a QM documentation system following the ISO 9001 structure. There are 30 quality procedures within the QMS (see Table 1). In order to facilitate coordination and communication within the school, there are altogether 194 standard quality forms for all quality procedures. Consequently, all staff have a common basis for their work tasks.

Table 1: Quality procedures at SMKN 4 Makassar

While ISO 9001:2008 is a widely recognized and relatively flexible quality management concept, it is not designed specifically for institutions in the area of education and training. For this reason, there are a number of other or complementing QM approaches that seek to take into consideration the special situation of institutions that “produce” education and training. One of these alternative concepts is Q2E. This QM model was developed in Switzerland but is now also applied at vocational schools in other countries such as Germany (IDES 2010).

One of the most interesting aspects about Q2E is its versatility. First of all, it is an action model for schools that plan to establish a QMS[4]. As indicated by the name, this should be achieved through continuous evaluations (both individual and for the entire school; both internal and external) and further development (Landwehr & Steiner 2007).

In addition to that, Q2E also serves as a reference framework for school quality. This quality definition is twofold: the first quality definition is process-oriented. In this regard, a good school is a school that strives for continuous improvement through a quality management system. The second quality definition describes concrete quality requirements that a good school should fulfil. The framework consists of four quality areas:

• Quality of inputs
• Quality of processes in class (instruction)
• Quality of processes in the school
• Quality of outputs/outcomes

Each quality area is further concretized in three quality dimensions[5]. A fifth quality area that refers to all the other quality areas and can thus be understood as a “meta-area” is quality management which is also divided into three quality dimensions (ibid.).

The following figure provides an overview of the five quality areas and 15 quality dimensions of the Q2E reference framework:

Figure 3: Quality areas and quality dimensions of the Q2E reference framework
(© Landwehr/Steiner PH NW EDK Aarau, translation by the authors)

The Q2E reference framework should not serve as a blueprint that schools adopt completely. Rather, they should use it as background concept to develop their own quality framework.

After presenting the main characteristics of the two quality management approaches, ISO 9001:2008 and Q2E, the following explains how these concepts were combined for the QMSiS approach at SMKN 4 Makassar. As ISO 9001:2008 is the concept with the wider international popularity and is also one that can be certified in Indonesia, it serves as the foundation of QMSiS. Different aspects of Q2E and particularly of the Q2E reference framework were then added to all the processes of ISO 9001:2008. This helped the school to reflect more deeply on its education quality needs and targets and to develop the corresponding quality criteria in more detail, especially in the area of internal and external evaluation (Eberhard 2009).

This is in line with the Government Regulation 19/2005 which explained the 8 Indonesian education standards[6]. One of the most essential of these with regard to TVET quality is standard 2 “Process standards”. Within the ISO framework, this would be related to chapter 7 (product realization) and it defines standards for teaching and learning methodologies:

“The teaching process in schools shall be conducted in a way that is interactive, inspiring, fun, and challenging, motivates students to participate actively, and provides sufficient space for initiatives, creativity, and independence in line with the talents, interest, and physical and psychological development of the students.” (MoEC 2013, 89)

This goal marks an important development away from the traditional teacher-centred instruction towards a learner-centred approach. Nevertheless, the MoEC acknowledges that a “lack of overall implementation guidelines or core indicators” still poses a challenge in practice (ibid., 90). This is then the gap where Q2E can support schools in defining and implementing a comprehensive QMS.

The following figure shows where Q2E aspects complement the ISO approach in QMSiS:

Figure 4: Q2E quality reference framework as a complement to ISO 9001:2008

The result of this combination of ISO 9001:2008 and Q2E is a quality management approach that follows the ISO logic and helps the school in improving its reputation by receiving external certification. At the same time, it is a very rich concept which takes into special consideration the characteristics and requirements of schools and helps them to achieve the provisions of the national education standards.

After the explanation of QMSiS and its underlying quality management concepts, the next chapter describes the process of its practical implementation at SMKN 4 Makassar.

4 Practical implementation of QMSiS at SMKN 4 Makassar

4.1 Local school context

SMKN 4 Makassar is a public vocational school in the city of Makassar. In Makassar, there are currently 11 public vocational high schools and 87 private vocational high schools. The main industries of the district are trading, home industry and fishery. Among the shared challenges of most of the local vocational high schools are fast industry development, a lack of infrastructure, lack of teachers´ competencies and of industry linkages, curriculum development and also the development of suitable teaching materials.

SMKN 4 Makassar has six departments: Accounting, Office administration, Marketing, Tourism and Travel, Computer Networking and Commercial Cookery. Currently 1412 students are taught by a total of 97 teachers.

4.2 Prior quality challenges

Before the introduction of QMSiS, SMKN 4 Makassar had no coherent QMS. As a consequence of this situation, the school suffered from various quality problems:

• A lack of external/customer orientation: the school management mostly focused on the internal needs of the school (input orientation).
• Unsystematic and incoherent preparation and implementation of learning activities by the school’s teachers: Teachers used different approaches for the preparation and implementation of their lessons. There was no external feedback and motivation to help them to develop their teaching in a more systematic way.
• Teacher-centred teaching and learning processes: Students did not have an active role in their learning. Furthermore, teaching quality was relatively uneven. The students could be lucky if a teacher invested more time and effort into planning the lessons and used different didactic approaches. If not, they would experience a more unidirectional instruction.
• Inefficient documentation procedures in the school administration and as a result frequent confusion about student and other school data: documentation was paper-based and often incomplete. As a result, finding information was very time-consuming for both school staff and external stakeholders (such as parents, industry representatives or government officials).
• Lack of student involvement: Students were not much involved in the organization of different activities of the school life (such as local or regional events) and also played a more passive role in their learning process. Education and training could thus not contribute optimally to their professional development towards becoming independent and self-confident employees.

These weaknesses represented problems in different areas of the school and hence it was necessary to develop and implement a holistic quality management approach that would encompass all school departments and their related work procedures.

4.3 Practical implementation of QMSiS at SMK 4 Makassar

In order to address the aforementioned quality obstacles and improve the school’s performance, the school management of SMK 4 Makassar decided to introduce a new QMS in 2011. This change process started with an information workshop to make sure that all school staff understood the importance and different aspects of quality management. Next, a work team was created which was responsible for implementing the subsequent activities and preparing the quality management documents that should later be used by all school staff. To ensure that different departments of the school worked well together for a better education and training quality, it was necessary to understand and list all the crucial work procedures. For each procedure, the new documentation system contained standard documents to guide the staff’s work. Creating such a common reference system yielded several benefits. Firstly, it promoted clarity and a shared awareness of the quality expectations within the school. Secondly, as the work procedures were clearer and well-structured, the school staff could save time and resources that were previously required for the preparation, communication and negotiation of tasks. And lastly, the new QMS also supports the staff in reflecting on their work. It is easier than before to check whether all tasks were completed or whether important aspects were missing.

Finally, after an internal and external audit the school received the ISO certification for quality management.

4.4 Positive results for TVET quality at SMKN 4 Makassar

As a result of the successful implementation of QMSiS at SMKN 4 Makassar, a number of different internal and external performance aspects could be enhanced. Firstly, teaching and learning processes in the classroom were improved. All the teachers participated in workshops where they learnt and discussed about their role as teachers within the quality framework of the school. They also learnt how to prepare and structure their lessons with the help of common documents and apply a greater variety of different teaching and learning methods. By doing so, especially the less experienced teachers were strengthened. This is one of the quality areas where aspects from Q2E (in this case: process quality in class) helped to enrich the ISO 9001:2008 structure. As a result of these changes, teaching and learning processes have become more interactive and more responsibility is transferred from the teachers to the students.

In addition, students are now more involved in the school’s activities than before as this aspect is also included on the procedures list of QMSiS. This means that student associations are now actively contributing to the planning, implementation and evaluation of school events throughout the year (local, regional and national). Feedback from students, parents, and teachers such as meeting responses, activity reports and questionnaires showed that these experiences were considered very valuable and a good preparation for the students´ personal and professional development after graduation.

Furthermore, SMKN 4 Makassar intensified its connections and contacts with the local industries through the introduction of QMSiS. QMSiS includes information and agreements on the professional networks of the school and how different industry stakeholders contribute to education and training services. As a result, the school managed to increase the number of companies that joined the industry attachment program from 70 to 108. The participating companies come from a broad range of economic sectors such as retail, travel and tourism agencies, hotels, restaurants, government institutions, food service companies, IT companies and financial service providers. This enhanced professional network contributed to a better education and training quality in several ways. First of all, industry representatives provide support in the annual curriculum development process. Together with teachers and the school management, they discuss about competency demands by the industry, required training equipment and also about assessment criteria for the different competencies. Secondly, industry staff is now also involved as guest lecturers at SMKN 4 Makassar. Every school department hosts such guest events once per semester. Thus, the experts have the opportunity to talk about professional innovations and provide the students with a better understanding of the realities of their future workplace. Thirdly, industry personnel are not only involved in curriculum development but also in the student assessment process. This comprehensive progress is already yielding tangible benefits as the rate of school graduates who are hired as new employees in local industries has risen from 32% to now approximately54% per year.

Finally, another positive effect of the implementation of QMSiS has been an increased government support. The MoEC had linked school funding to the existence of a QMS as an indicator of school quality. The quality improvement was confirmed via the school accreditation and the ISO 9001:2008 certification. Subsequently, SMKN 4 Makassar received financial support from the local government to modernize school buildings and training equipment, to offer more teacher training activities, to promote student entrepreneurship and further industry partnerships, to support curriculum development and to undertake international benchmarking activities.

4.5 Dissemination and regional relevance

After these positive results at SMKN 4 Makassar, the experiences and activities with QMSiS were also disseminated to 16 other schools in South and West Sulawesi[7]. In a series of workshops in 2011 and 2012, teachers and management staff at the other schools learned about the importance of QMS and the process of setting up a quality documentation system. Furthermore, they received assistance in the implementation of their own QMS and in some cases for the preparation of certification. Until now, five of the sixteen schools have already implemented QMSiS and are on their way to external ISO 9001:2008 certification. As a result of these dissemination activities, school staff is more aware of the importance of quality aspects and of a QMS for the functioning of the school. Furthermore, the schools enhanced their documentation systems and as a consequence could also improve teaching and learning processes. The teachers prepare better lesson plans on the basis of the curriculum and include a greater didactic variety in their classes. Also as a result of the implementation of QMSiS, several schools received government support such as financial support for equipment, teacher training, curriculum development and promoting further industry partnerships.

5 Findings and recommendations

Improving quality in TVET has been one of the main education reform areas in Indonesia for the last years. As a part of this broad objective, vocational schools should establish coherent quality management systems.

The example of the vocational high school SMKN 4 in Makassar represents the experiences and benefits of the introduction of a new QMS called QMSiS. This concept brings together the international reputation and structural flexibility of ISO 9001:2008 and the detailed focus on school-specific quality requirements of Q2E. QMSiS was implemented at SMKN 4 Makassar in 2011. The positive results for the school include improvements in teaching and learning processes, an enhanced responsibility for students in school activities, a stronger network with local companies and an increase in government support. These positive experiences have so far been shared and disseminated to 16 other vocational schools in the region.

Although the positive results of introducing QMSiS prevailed, they came at some costs. Additional resources in the form of time, manpower and financial costs were needed to integrate Q2E principles into the ISO 9001:2008 approach in the way that it helps fulfil the national education standards. Approximately 1.5 additional months were needed for the discussion about and the development of the specific quality documentation procedures.

These practical experiences from Makassar show that Q2E can contribute to the enrichment of ISO 9001:2008. Through this combination, QMSiS can help achieve the objectives of the Indonesian education standards that determine the quality targets but cannot guide schools through the steps that lead there. The example also shows that it is important to involve all school stakeholders in the discussion and adaptation of the QMS to ensure ownership and the integrity of the new system.

Beyond its regional relevance, the example of QMSiS at SMKN 4 Makassar also represents a potential source of advice and learning for other schools in Indonesia who want to develop their own QMS and make sure that it is in line with their institutional context. To broaden the positive influence of these activities, we recommend the following measures:

• In order to continue the positive development for TVET in the region, further workshops and activities to enhance quality management should take place at vocational schools in South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, Gorontalo, North Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi.
• With an even wider range of practical experiences with QMSiS, it would be useful to systematically collect the outcomes over a longer time period. This process should be supported scientifically, e.g. by a university with experience in the area of quality management in TVET. This scientific support could help derive facilitating factors and obstacles for the implementation of an effective QMS. This way, QMSiS could develop into a successful and well-founded model for other regions in Indonesia.
• Broader networking activities on the regional and national level would encourage professional exchange between TVET researchers and practitioners about different QMS in the Indonesian TVET context. This would allow for a comparison of practical experiences and joint efforts towards the compatibility and coordination of different QMS. As the government aims at reducing regional disparities in education, QM approaches in TVET should contribute to this objective and not rival to each other.

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[1] SMK = Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan

[2]Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia = KKNI)

[3]This project was supported by the World Bank and the Dutch government.

[4]This action model includes the following instruments: Definition of a quality concept for the school, controlling quality processes by the school management, external school evaluation, Individual feedback and personal quality development, data-based self-evaluation of the school

[5]On a 3^rd level below quality areas and quality dimensions, the Q2E reference framework describes quality characteristics. These are approx. 250 normative statements of quality requirements of a good school (Landwehr & Steiner 2007). When defining its own quality framework, each school would decide which of these to incorporate.

[6]The 8 education standards are: 1) content standards, 2) process standards, 3) standards for educators and educational personnel, 4) facility and infrastructure standards, 5) management standards, 6) financing standards, 7) assessment standards, and 8) graduation competency standards (see MoEC 2013, 85).

[7]These schools were: SMKN 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8 Makassar (South Sulawesi), SMKN 3 Pare-Pare (South Sulawesi), SMKN 1 Bantaeng (South Sulawesi), SMKN 1 Bulukumba (South Sulawesi), SMKN 1 Watangsoppeng (South Sulawesi), SMKN 1 and 2 Pinrang (South Sulawesi), SMKN 1 and 2 Palopo (South Sulawesi), SMKN 1 Polewali Mandar (West Sulawesi).

Citation

Mustafa & Petrick, S. (2015). Quality Management System in School (QMSiS ): an Indonesian example for improving quality at vocational schools. In: TVET@Asia, issue 4, 1-16. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue4/mustafa_petrick_tvet4.pdf (retrieved 30.1.2015).

Indonesia’s large workforce is both a chance and a challenge. As a strategy against the skill mismatch between labour supply and demand, the government continues its efforts to increase school participation rates and invests in school infrastructure. As new industries develop and national and international labour mobility increases, graduates of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) need competencies that can be applied in changing work contexts. In 2012, the Indonesian Qualification Framework was introduced as a starting point for competency-based education and training in Indonesia. The question now is how to ultimately transfer these targets into teaching practice.

In many Indonesian vocational schools, lecture-style teaching combined with traditional teaching aids fail to prepare graduates to solve work-related problems in the context of new technical, social and environmental norms. The German didactic concept of action orientation aims at this holistic competency development through the so called “action-oriented learning’. As the general competency targets in Germany and Indonesia share many similarities, we suggest that the German approach of action-oriented learning has potential for improving teaching processes in the Indonesian context.

This assumption is based on an example of action-oriented learning in a tourism class in a vocational school in Surabaya, Indonesia. The purpose of this action research was to examine how role plays, as an action-oriented learning method, combined with multimedia-based learning materials could influence learning outcomes and student motivation. Compared to the traditional chalk-and-talk instruction, both motivation and self-confidence of the students were enhanced. Furthermore, the average student score rose by approx. 15% to 84%. This outcome is a positive sign for the application of action orientation in other learning environments.

In order to improve TVET practice in Indonesia, initial and further teacher training should focus more on didactics and incorporate learner-centered teaching methods. Furthermore, TVET practitioners should be encouraged to conduct more research to collect experiences and best practices.

1 Background: Socio-economic situation and its impact on the TVET system

Indonesia’s large population of more than 250 million represents both boon and bane for education and training and the development of the labour market. Approx. 26% of the popu­lation are younger than 15 years and thus will enter the labour market in the next years (CIA 2014). Although the official unemployment rate is quite low with 6.6%, youth unemployment is high at 22,2% and more than 50% of all workers are employed in the informal sector (CIA 2014; Kim 2010, 162).

The structure of the Indonesian economy is changing and is moving towards the supply of more sophisticated products and services. The Ministry of Industry identified three main pillars of future growth: agro-industry, information technology industry and transportation industry (Kim 2010, 169). Furthermore, both national and international labour mobility plays a greater role as the formal labour market cannot absorb all the new workers, and disparities between different regions prevail in a country as large as Indonesia. In such a dynamic context, equipping workers with flexible skills for a variety of work settings is of special importance. These so called transferable skills can help workers to adjust to changing job requirements and further develop their skills and competencies. While the discussion on the definition and scope of transferable skills continues, several Southeast Asian countries have acknowledged the importance of the topic and initiated policy reforms (Manuson 2013; Trzmiel 2013).

As a reaction to these challenges, the Indonesian government raised the education budget to over 20% of the total budget. These funds should be invested into promoting access, improv­ing quality and broadening gender equality at all educational levels. A special focus lies on skill enhancement and thus on the development of vocational schools (Kim 2010, 179f.). This focus is urgently needed as skill surveys show that secondary education (both general and vocational) is one of the major problems for skill development in Indonesia (Di Gropello 2011, 147f.)

Firstly, this article provides an overview of recent policies and trends for skill development in Indonesia. As the Indonesian Qualification Framework (IQF) was the starting point for competency orientation in the education system, it is presented in more detail. On this basis, we secondly compare general TVET competency targets in Indonesia and Germany and subsequently suggest that the didactic principle of action orientation can be a useful approach for improving learning outcomes in Indonesian vocational schools. This claim is then supported by a practical example of action-oriented teaching at a vocational school in East Java. Finally, the last section summarizes the most important aspects and recommends areas for future research.

2 Current trends and policies concerning the development of transferable skills in Indonesia

Economic and educational policymakers in Indonesia are well aware of the challenges and importance of improving outcomes of education and training. In 2011, the World Bank published a comprehensive report on skill demand, supply and gaps which provided a sound basis for the development and implementation of new policies (see Di Gropello 2011).

Following the Indonesian government’s desire to improve learning outcomes, this article looks at competency development in Indonesian vocational schools, the so called Sekolah Menen­gah Kejuruan (SMK). By 2009, there had been more than 7500 vocational schools of which approximately ¾ are private and ¼ are public (Kim 2010, 182-183). The enrolment ratio in technical/vocational education as a share of total enrolment in upper secondary educa­tion was 42. 3% in 2011 and had been rising (World Data Bank 2014). This is consistent with the reform strategy “SMK Roadmap 2010-2014” introduced by the Directorate of Vocational Education which aims to increase the number of vocational schools, vocational teachers and students. Ultimately, the proportion of general senior secondary to vocational senior second­ary schools should be reversed and reach a ratio of 33 : 66% by 2014 (Kim 2010, 185).

However, raising school and student numbers alone will not lead to a better skill match of SMK graduates with labour market needs. The World Bank’s Skill Report showed that the skills most lacked by younger workers include English language, leadership, creativity, problem-solving and computer skills (Di Gropello 2011, 144). When it comes to graduates of secondary vocational education, the report shows that employers from both the manufacturing and the service sector expressed their need for more and better generic skills such as thinking skills, behavioural skills and the ability to work independently and in teams (ibid., 130, 147).

In order to improve learning outcomes in SMK, the Directorate of Vocational Education set additional targets to be reached by 2014. These include an increase in the accreditation rate of SMK, an increase in the number of schools that meet international quality standards (e.g. ISO 9001/2008), a widespread use of e-learning at SMK and the transformation of SMK into “teaching industry” schools (ibid, 187). The concept of teaching industry means that SMK specialize in producing specific products, parts, etc. for regional enterprises. This approach should create closer links between schools and companies, help the schools to generate additional income and show the TVET students, starting from the beginning of their training, that they are an important part of the production process and ultimately of their community’s wellbeing. In addition, the Directorate of Senior Vocational Schools of the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) developed another strategy for a better integration of SKM graduates into the labour market. The learning outcomes in the area of “adaptive knowledge” (natural sciences, entrepreneurship skills, foreign languages and “basic competencies”) should be strengthened[1] (ibid, 188). These competencies and knowledge are relevant for performing well in any job and therefore fall under the broader concept of transferable skills.

However, workers can only benefit from transferable skills if their prior qualifications and skills are recognized. Thus, one of the most important recent achievements of the Indonesian education system was the introduction of a national qualification framework that sets competency-based learning goals for all education and training courses. The Indonesian Qualification Framework (IQF) serves as a comparison tool for improving international labour mobility to and from Indonesia (Santoso 2013, 12). Since many Indonesian workers work and acquire skills in the informal sector, the IQF should also ensure the recognition of non-formal and informal learning.

In addition, teacher development was a crucial reform area. The Teacher Law of 2005 in­cluded certain minimum qualification standards and substantially raised teacher salaries. As a result, the reputation of teaching as a profession has improved and more and better appli­cants are being attracted to the teaching profession. However, the increase in salaries has not led to a significant improvement in learning outcomes as of yet (Chang et al. 2014, 4). It seems that most teachers still rely on a lecture-style way of instruction that is easy to manage but does not promote the development of problem-solving skills and independent thinking (ibid.).

After this overview of the recent developments in competency and skill development in Indonesia, the next section will take a closer look at IQF.

3 The IQF as starting point towards competency-based TVET in Indonesia

The IQF consists of 9 competency levels. These range from education at the junior secondary schools (SMP) at level 1 up to PhD degrees at level 9 (PP 8/2012). For each of the 9 competency levels, descriptors of learning outcomes and competency are divided into four skill parameters: moral and ethics, work competences, knowledge comprehension as well as autonomy and responsibility.While the learning outcomes for ‘moral & ethics’ are the same across different occupations and for all skill levels, the other three parameters contain distinct targets for each level. The parameter ‘work competences’ includes both generic work competencies, that match a variety of occupational/professional situations, and working competencies that are specific to a certain training program. The parameter ‘knowledge comprehension’ is also training program-specific. The fourth parameter, autonomy and responsibility, is again broader and covers general managerial skills (Santoso 2013, 22). Looking at the competency targets in the IQF, it becomes clear that transferable skills form an important part of future education and training programs in Indonesia.

Under the IQF, the education and training courses at the SMK fall under competency level 2. SMK graduates are thus expected to perform work tasks on the level of operators. While level 2 is at the lower half of the IQF spectrum, the following excerpt shows that workers at this level require skills for independent decision-making, teamwork and quality awareness.

For SMK graduates, learning outcomes are described as follows:

a)Moral and Ethics

The worker

• “[is] Devoted to the One Mighty God;
• Possesses excellent moral, ethics and personal identity in carrying out her/his jobs;
• Acts as a citizen who is proud of and loves her/his nation and has faith in world peace;
• [is] Capable of working in teams and attests compassion to social, community and environmental issues;
• Values diversity in culture, vision, beliefs and religion as well as appreciates patent and property rights;
• Esteems law enforcement and demonstrates spirit to put priority to national and public needs” (Santoso 2013, 43).

b) Work competences

“[The worker is] capable to carry out specific tasks using tools, information and commonly defined working procedures, and demonstrates performance with measurable quality under direct supervision of her/his supervisor.” (ibid, 45)

c) Knowledge Comprehension

“[The worker] possesses basic operational and factual knowledge and is capable to choose available solutions suitable for common […] problems.” (ibid, 45) [2]

d) Autonomy and Responsibility

“[The worker is] responsible for her/his own job and can be given responsibility to supervise other persons” (ibid, 45)[3]

In general, the introduction of the IQF and the different reform initiatives for strengthening TVET at the level of upper secondary education are important steps for improving learning outcomes. Nevertheless, the main challenge is to implement the new competency concepts in the classrooms. This requires a series of steps, starting from the formulation of IQF competency targets, their integration into TVET curricula and reaching as far as adjusting TVET teacher initial and further training courses to make teaching and learning processes more learner-centered.

In that sense, the next section compares competency targets in Germany and Indonesia and discusses opportunities for improving TVET learning processes.

4 Similarities in German and Indonesian competency standards:
An opportunity for the didactic approach of action orientation

According to the IQF competency descriptions, transferable skills constitute an important part of all future education and training programs in Indonesia. This is a trend that the country shares with many others and, thus, it is natural to compare and learn from international experiences. This article links developments in Indonesia with experiences from Germany as both countries have a long history of education cooperation[4] and the German TVET system enjoys a good international reputation.

The underlying concept and goal of TVET instruction in Germany is Vocational Action Competence. It has been introduced officially with the latest Berufsbildungsgesetz (Federal Law on Technical and Vocational Education and Training) in 2005. All TVET programs in Germany aim to develop Vocational Action Competence in their students. This competence is defined as:

“willingness and ability of an individual to act adequately and responsibly in professional, social and private situations. Action Competence unfolds in the dimensions of (1) technical competence, (2) personal competence and (3) social competence.” (KMK 2011, 15; translation by the author)

A fourth dimension that is connected to the other three is that of (4) methodological competence.

As TVET qualifications were already standardized nationwide, the introduction of a national qualification framework in Germany was not of the same importance as in Indonesia where qualifications differ and are not recognized everywhere. However, with the development of the European Qualification Framework (EQF), Germany assigned its existing TVET and higher education degrees to the eight-level framework to enhance European labour mobility. In the German Qualification Framework (DGR), the categories of action competence are structured slightly differently[5] but as all national framework curricula and training regulations still contain the definition above, this article will use this particular definition.

In order to develop Vocational Action Competence, teaching and learning processes in TVET need to be designed and implemented accordingly. For this purpose, the didactic concept of ‘action orientation’ has been developed and subsequently introduced into the curricula framework for all recognized occupations in Germany. Action orientation means that learning is structured into the steps of an action (see Figure 1) similar to that workers have to take in the workplace. Confronted with a new task, workers would need to independently gather information, plan and decide on their approach, implement it, control their performance and assess the outcome with a colleague/superior. In a vocational school, these steps serve as a structure that trainees can follow to autonomously complete the action and, thus, acquire new knowledge and skills.

Figure 1: Didactic Model of the Complete Action (Source: Petrick, S.)

Amongst others, action-oriented learning methods that can be applied in TVET include: project method, exploration method, guiding text method, case (study) method, construction assignment, experiments and role play. Although action-oriented learning processes can be realized through a variety of methods, all of them share certain characteristics:

• Combination of theory and practice and of thinking and manual work
• Learner activation and learners’ independent performance of work tasks
• Mixture of group and individual work to promote solidary behavior
• Creation of specific action material as results of the learning process (such as a presentation, a model, a work piece, a website, an event, a play etc.). The learners identify with the material resulting from their work and use it as the basis for discussion and assessment.
• Previous knowledge is re-activated and new information is introduced
• Teacher becomes a learning facilitator and advisor instead of an instructor
• Learning serves as the preparation for the future workplace but should also develop the personality
• Consideration is given to the subjective interests of the learners (self-directed, explorative learning) (Arnold 2001, 147f.; Jank & Meyer 1994, 355ff.)

The analysis of Vocational Action Competence and action-oriented learning provide the background for comparison with the Indonesian context. At first glance, the overall learning outcomes in TVET in Germany and Indonesia seem quite different. However, if we look at the different dimensions of both approaches, we can identify a number of similarities which are summarized in Figure 2. This analysis was carried out by examining the general competency descriptors of the IQF for all four parameters on all 9 competency levels and assigning them the four dimensions of Vocational Action Competence[6]. Figure 2 shows which dimensions of Vocational Action Competence correspond to every IQF parameter.

Figure 2: Comparison between the four dimensions of Vocational Action Competence and the four parameters of the competency descriptions in the IQF (Source: Petrick, S.)

This short analysis shows that all four dimensions of the German Vocational Action Competence can be found in the Indonesian IQF´s competency descriptions. However, the focus on methodological competencies seems to be more implicit and less specific in IQF than in the German context. The same seems to apply for social competencies. This difference might be due to the different cultural context of the two countries[7]. On the other hand, in the IQF there is a stronger focus on knowledge[8].Vocational Action Competence includes cognitive knowledge but it is necessary to perform work tasks; it is not an end in itself. Furthermore, there is a much stronger emphasis on leadership skills in the IQF than in the Vocational Action Competence. This is in line with the objective of the Directorate of Senior Vocational Schools of the MoNE to further strengthen entrepreneurship skills in TVET.

As there are many similarities in the learning objectives of the two TVET systems and as em­ployer and employee surveys in Indonesia showed that more and sounder transferable skills are required in the workplace, we suggest that the didactical concept of action orientation can be a beneficial approach to improving teaching and learning in TVET in Indonesia.

After this theoretical analysis, the next section provides a practical example in which action-oriented teaching was implemented in one department in a vocational school in Surabaya, Indonesia.

5 Implementing theory into practice: Role play combined with multi­media-based learning materials in a tourism class at an Indonesian vocational school (SMKN 10 Surabaya)

This section presents findings from a small action research at a vocational school in Surabaya. Action research is a research approach that brings together systematic diagnosis, action and reflection with the goal of improving practice (Ebbutt 1985, 156; McNiff 2002, 15). Research subjects are derived from concrete social problems in a specific site and much less from previous theoretic scientific findings (Mayring 2002). In our case, the problem consisted of the unsatisfactory learning outcomes for the subject “Provision of Arrival and Departure Assistance” in the tourism training program.

5.1 Context setting and research process

SMKN 10 Surabaya is a public vocational school in East Java, Indonesia. It has six departments (accounting, office administration, banking, marketing, tour & travel, multimedia) where altogether 97 teachers are responsible for 1750 students. The school aims to train graduates who can compete on a national and international level. SMKN 10 aspires to achieve the status of ‘international school’ and is currently on the level of a “pre-international school”.

As such, it fulfils the following requirements:

• Learning materials in mathematics, sciences and productive subjects must be bilingual (English and Indonesian);
• All learning rooms must be equipped with Information and Communication Technology (ICT);
• ICT must be applied in all of the available subjects;
• Teachers must speak English in mathematics, sciences, and production classes;
• There is an agreement with an international partner, especially on curriculum development.

The action research was carried out in the department for tour and travel in the 2^nd grade which, between January and February 2013, consisted of 37 students. The entire department consisted of 5 teachers and 210 students.

The idea for this research was developed during and after a 12-month further training course on media development in TVET in 2011/12 which was conducted by the Deutsche Gesell­schaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). After this training in Germany, Mr Nurkho­lis, a tourism teacher and also vice principal in charge of human resource development (HRD) at SMKN 10, prepared a concept for introducing action-oriented teaching methods in combination with multimedia-based learning materials in his class. He formulated two research questions to guide his analysis:

1. How does the use of multimedia-based learning material affect the students´ motivation and performance in the class?
2. How does the application of an action-oriented lesson design affect the learning outcomes in terms of students´ self-confidence and student scores?

The following table summarizes the different steps of the research process using McNiff´s eight-step model for action research (see McNiff 2002, 71).

Table 1: Description of steps taken to carry out action research at SMKN 10

5.2 Description of the intervention

As one of the most important aspects of the tourism training program, the topic ‘provision of arrival and departure assistance” was selected for the action research.

Previously, instruction on this topic would take place as follows:

1. The teacher explained the theoretical contents of the topic to students in lecture style using a PowerPoint presentation (mostly text and only few pictures). The students would listen and ask question when something was unclear.
2. The teacher would demonstrate an example in front of the class, e.g. how to welcome tourists and see them off (welcoming and departure remarks).
3. The students were then asked to write down their own welcoming/departure remarks (group or individual work) and memorize them in English.
4. Finally, they would present their texts, one by one, in front of the class and the teacher evaluated their performance.

While this learning approach includes at least some learner activity, there was need for improvement. Firstly, the role of the teacher was very dominant and the students were not challenged to assume more responsibility for their own learning. Secondly, students’ English language skills could not develop well because they could use the teacher’s oral presentation as orientation. Thirdly and most importantly, hardly any work-reference was provided. In neither of the learning phases did the students acquire an insight into the real-work situation of guiding or welcoming tourists. Therefore, they could not develop the necessary technical, social and personal competencies.

The action research was conducted from January to February 2013. To allow for some reflection on the new lesson design and to make time for changes to it, there were two research cycles. Table 2 provides an overview on the new learning unit which follows the didactic principle of action orientation and includes a greater variety of media than the previous instruction method.

Table 2:Action-oriented learning in ‘provision of arrival and departure assistance’

The main difference between the 1^st and the 2^nd research cycle was the use of video-recording for documenting of the role plays. Initially, the students played their roles and the teacher observed and provided his/her feedback. However, if some students did not perform well, they would benefit less from the time that is had been used for the actual role play. Therefore, video-recording was introduced in the 2^nd research cycle. Before the role play, all groups would make some short exercises to familiarize themselves with the new situation and to receive some initial feedback from the teacher. Afterwards, they would conduct their role play as planned. The videos later gave the students the opportunity to see their performance from an objective perspective and compare their results with their classmates and with the theoretical input.

5.3 Results

The goal of the intervention was to improve learning outcomes, motivation and self-confidence of the students. Over the two research cycles, seem to have been achieved.

Firstly, students’ motivation was improved compared to their motivation levels in the traditional learning setting. Motivation levels were assessed through teacher observations during the learning activities (using an observation list) and also through the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to all 37 students and included 4 questions:

• Did this learning process encourage you to study and was it exciting?
• Were the learning materials easy to understand?
• Do you think these learning materials can improve your competences such as: English language skills, social competences, guiding techniques, self-confidence, mastering the material?
• Should this kind of media also be used in the future?

The majority of the student feedback on these questions was positive. The students even said that they wanted to learn in the same way also in other subjects of their vocational training.

The learning outcomes were assessed by the teacher’s observation of the work process and on the basis of the final product, the video recordings of the role plays. The average score of the 1^st cycle was 74.8 % and the average score of the 2^nd cycle was 84.14%. With the traditional methods of instruction, the average score used to be approx. 70%. The performance assessment is not competency-based yet. However, by structuring the teaching process into the different action phases and by assigning each phase and its desired competency goals, the teacher could gain a good understanding of how well the students met these goals by his observation of the work process and the final outcome.

Besides the improved student scores, the relevance to work practice was greater given that the learning situation was more work-authentic than previously. In the interaction with their group members, in their different roles, the students had a better chance to apply their language skills and the particular knowledge on arrival and departure assistance, as it would be required from them later on the job.

As a consequence of these positive experiences, this didactic approach has also been used by the other teachers at the department and has been expanded to other learning content as well.

These results present an example of how action-oriented teaching and learning methods can be applied in tourism training and show that they can promote holistic competency development.

6 Conclusions and outlook

In the Indonesian socio-economic context, transferable skills are increasingly in demand by employers but are often lacking on the employee side.

With its focus on work competencies, TVET is one of main types of education and training that needs to improve. The Indonesian government has introduced a number of policies that should boost both the ‘quantity’ of people in education and training and the ‘quality’ on all educational levels. In that respect, the introduction of the Indonesian Qualification Frame­work (IQF) in 2012 was a major achievement. The broader competency targets con­tained in the IQF must now be applied to training program contents, curricula and ultimately in peda­go­gies. Teaching and learning in Indonesian vocational schools continue to be mostly teacher-centered and include little variation in methods and media. Passive students will, however, not become active workers and thus there is a strong need for improving learning in the class­room.

Action orientation is a didactic concept developed in the German-speaking countries but can be a useful approach for the Indonesian context as well. Through action-oriented learning, TVET students can develop and improve transferable skills such as problem-solving skills, communication skills, responsibility, self-reliance etc. Action orientation does not require the latest technical equipment to be successful. Rather, the key is how assignments are structured into different phases so that the students manage their autonomous learning and the teacher role changes from “instructor” to “learning facilitator”.As Indonesian TVET curricula include some flexibility to accommodate local training needs, teachers enjoy some freedom and could change their lesson plans to make their lessons more learner-centered.

A small action research project at a vocational school in Surabaya was carried out in 2013 to examine how an action-oriented lesson would influence students´ learning outcomes and motivation in tourism training. The example showed that learners’ motivation, confidence and learning outcomes improved in comparison to the traditional teacher-centered instruction. As a consequence, this teaching style was adopted by other teachers of the school and has been expanded to other training topics. Due to the limited scope of the analysis, the results do not allow for generalizations about action orientation at other schools and subjects yet. In this regard, further research both over a longer period and for a broader sample could substantiate the findings.

In order to spread innovative teaching and learning methods, TVET teachers who introduce new concepts should be more encouraged to conduct research and share their findings. This is important to understand how didactic concepts can be applied in the Indonesian context and in which conditions. As TVET curricula in Indonesia have yet to be reformed to become competency-oriented, a further useful field of research lies in comparative curricular analysis for specific occupations between Germany and Indonesia. These findings and the input from the IQF standards could help develop new curricula as a sound basis for the design of learner-centered teaching approaches.

Furthermore, these new didactic concepts have to be integrated into the curricula of TVET teaching degrees at universities. Here, it is important that prospective teachers not only learn about these concepts in theory but also apply them in teaching practice. Thereby, they experience both the teacher and learner perspective. For those who already work as teachers, didactical knowledge and exercises should be an integral part of all further training courses. Thus, they would not only learn about technological innovations but also find out ways to help their students learn about them.

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[1] In Indonesian TVET curricula, learning contents are divided into three areas: 1) normative knowledge (e.g. religion, Indonesian language, physical education etc.), 2) adaptive knowledge and 3) productive knowledge & experience (specific work-related knowledge and skills for a certain training field such as hotel management, animal husbandry etc.). To ensure a higher mobility between TVET and general education, the vocational part of the curricula accounts for only 25% of the total content (Kim 2010, 183-184; UNESCO UNEVOC 2011)

[2] Spelling mistakes in original quotation corrected by the author

[3] Spelling mistakes in original quotation corrected by the author

[4] Both countries have been working together for decades in the area of education (BMZ 2011, 8). Indonesia belongs to the group of global development partners of the German development cooperation. One pillar of this cooperation is the promotion of sustainable economic development through TVET (iMove 2012, 23).

[5] “The competency categories of the DQR are technical competence, divided into knowledge and skills, and personal competences, divided into social competence and autonomy. […] Methodological competence is understood as a cross-sectional competence and is therefore not mentioned explicitly in the DQR.” (BMBF 2014, translation by the author)

[6] see Directorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi 2012, 25-27 for the complete competency descriptions

[7] If we compare, for instance, Germany and Indonesia using Hofstede´s model of cultural dimensions, we find that Indonesia has a higher power distance but is characterized by a much lower degree of individualism and masculinity (i.e. competition, achievement and success are important values) Therefore, there might be less need in Indonesia to include social competences such as compromising, openness, empathy etc. as these values are already relatively important in society. See: Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov 2010 for information on the cultural comparison.

[8] Thereby, the description moves from relatively low cognitive skill levels at competency level 1 (e.g. knowing factual knowledge) up to high cognitive skill levels (e.g. analyzing and evaluating knowledge) at competency levels 8 and 9. (see Krathwohl 2002 on Bloom´s Revised Taxonomy of Learning Objectives as an important concept in that field)

Citation

Nurkholis & Petrick, S. (2014). “Yes, I can!” – The potential of action-oriented teaching for enhanced learner-centered education in Indonesian vocational schools. In: TVET@Asia, issue 3, 1-18. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue3/nurkholis_petrick_tvet3.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2014).