Sustainable development goals (SDGs) cannot be achieved without human resource development (HRD) combined with capacity building for communities. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by United Nations members in 2015, highlights the need for protection, peace and prosperity for all ‘actants’ on the planet. It calls for an end to poverty and all deprivations by developing sustainable strategies to ensure food, shelter, financial independence, health, education and freedom are available to all.  However, these goals cannot be achieved without preserving the planet’s eco-systems and mitigating for climate change. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), both formal and non-formal, is one of the key vehicles for supporting HRD for the purposes of individual and collective well-being. From this perspective, TVET can become a catalyst for the social and economic transformation of communities and economies for the purposes of achieving SDGs targets.

TVET’s focus on traditional economic principles and industrial modernisation does not necessarily support the type of economic development required for achieving SDGs, therefore the focus should be revised in order to bring TVET in Asia in line with the UN’s SD agenda. To this end the quality of TVET, in all its multifaceted manifestations, should be a priority for governments in the region as well as worldwide.

In this context a strong national policy directed at transforming TVET systems for the purpose of equipping learners with core competencies required for these changes (e.g. green skills, critical and systematic thinking skills) is imperative. Of course there will be challenges encountered in the process. These relate to: the rapid technological transformations that will be required for SD across all sectors; strengthening the environmental industry sector, as well as implementing other economic and social changes in order to reshape existing redundant skills; the introduction of new programs; and closer collaboration with industry combined with large-scale capacity building for TVET personnel.

These challenges can be addressed at different levels, such as:

• policy formulation,
• regulatory mechanisms, such as national qualification frameworks, the standardisation of curriculum and requirements for TVET teachers’ profiles and qualifications,
• the institutional, and
• the personal.

Although governments and regulatory frameworks are fundamental for the transformation of the TVET system, TVET institutions and TVET practitioners themselves can also become active change agents for the realization of SDGs. They can become actively involved in establishing strong networks with industries and communities, for example. They can also integrate pressing global issues such as climate change, loss of biodiversity, sustainable consumption, as well as measures for greening industries and incorporating green technologies into their curriculum.

Personnel involved in all four of the levels of TVET systems stated above are arguably the most important influencers who contribute to the quality of TVET and its proactive pursuit of SDGs. Issue 14 of TVET@Asia addresses the challenges associated with capacity building across TVET systems to ensure the effective implementation of SDGs. The issue focuses on examining the objectives, concepts and experiences involved in preparing TVET personnel for change. Articles collected in this issue analyze different aspects of TVET teacher education and training that are directly related to the need to address issues associated with sustainable development in terms of education that contributes to SDGs. Recommendations and advice proposed by the authors, based on their research, can be used by policymakers and practitioners to design evidence-based initial and in-service educational programs for TVET teachers.

Margarita Pavlova and Christy Chen Shimin argue for the need to develop the capacity of TVET educators so they are able to reorient existing educational programs in TVET for the purposes of advancing the attainment of sustainable development goals (SDGs). Their article considers how TVET educators respond to the reorientation of the curriculum towards Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) by including generic green skills in a green module that was delivered by one TVET institute in Hong Kong. They put forward a work-based learning model for the professional development of TVET teachers that encourages them to learn with researchers and students together. The model can be adjusted to meet the needs of different types of teachers and it has the potential to enhance teachers’ capacity to implement green modules that will support students’ generic green skills development.

Liu Huan and Martin Hartmann examine the role of TVET institutions in China specifically in relation to achieving SDGs. In particular, the authors focus on the factors that influence the need to develop students’ competencies for SD in terms of the teaching and learning processes in TVET. Based on identified barriers and the demand for equipping students with key competencies for sustainability, practical advice and recommendations are offered for teachers to enhance their relevant competencies such as instructional competency, hands-on competency, competency to plan, competency to act in concrete domains, competency to analyze and reflect on the teaching and learning process, and others.

Rechell Lam and Ricky Yuk-kwan Ng highlight the importance of ‘learn to unlearn’ and ‘unlearn to learn’ as a promising solution for the capacity building of TVET personnel in the context of the rapid changing technologies in industries, particularly within the context of SD. This article discusses the sustainability needs for the curriculum, learning and teaching practices, pedagogies and the importance of TVET teachers’ continuing professional development (CPD).

Beatriz Matafora focuses specifically on equal access for the vulnerable to all levels of education and vocational training, including persons with disabilities as one of the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030. Her article examines inclusive measures in place in the TVET system in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany as well as challenges for TVET teachers associated with change. She also discusses recent research projects that analyze the attitudes and thoughts towards inclusion among TVET teachers and the skills TVET teachers require for inclusivity in vocational schools. The article also puts forward some directions for future research.

The article by Rong Kang and Margarita Pavlova focuses on the ways TVET teachers can be motivated to incorporate the knowledge and skills relevant to their own specializations, and those that are required for education for sustainable development (ESD), into their classroom/workshop practice. The article argues that career identity theories provide the principles that can be used to design teacher education and training programs to cultivate teachers’ motivation and commitment to ESD. The authors put forward a model that consists of six components that can be included in educational programs for TVET teachers with the specific aim of establishing ESD in TVET.

The Editors of Issue 14

Margarita Pavlova, Yuk Kwan Ricky Ng, Shakil Rehman Sheikh, Mahyuddin Arsat

Citation

Pavlova, M., Ng, Y.K.R., Sheikh, S.R., & Arsat, M. (2019). Editorial Issue 14: Preparing TVET Personnel to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals – Objectives, Concepts, and Experiences. In: TVET@Asia, issue 14, 1-3. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue14/editorial_tvet14.pdf (retrieved 31.12.2019).

The importance of building ecologically sound economies (greening) in order to address climate change and other pressing environmental issues is widely acknowledged by govern­ments around the world. A notable example is the recently held 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris/France where 195 countries adopted the first universal climate change agreement. Although the outcome of the conference, the Paris Agreement, requires ratification by national governments, it demonstrates the strong will of the attending nations to address the pressing issue of climate change, to adopt the outcomes to their own legal systems and to sign the agreement.

East and Southeast Asia is the workbench of the world and is presently hosting many envi­ron­mentally stressing industries. The results are increasing hazardous environmental condi­tions and health problems in the Asian regions. It is widely agreed that the environmen­tal conditions have to improve, so multiple stakeholders, including TVET systems, must contrib­ute to this change. Work processes need to be adjusted, human behaviour should become environmentally friendly, and new professions based on new green technologies, like solar energy, wind power, e-mobility will appear on a larger scale. Ultimately, the industrial and educational sectors have to have a positive impact on this individual, economical and societal change process.

The 6^th issue of TVET is addressing this most pressing challenge by discussing issues associ­ated with the greening of TVET. The following articles provide, in an exemplary manner, an insight into what must be addressed normatively and what can be practically achieved on macro-, meso- and micro-levels.

MARGARITA PAVLOVA provides an overview of government´s role in greening TVET, especially focussing on the East- and Southeast Asian region and the present development status of greening TVET. She demonstrates that greening of jobs and development of neces­sary skills are essential requirements for successful transitions to TVET greening. Based on the results of several studies, the author analyses various drivers, that impact upon the green­ing of skills in the region, and describes five enabling factors that should be systematically addressed for the greening of technical and vocational education and training (TVET). The article concludes with clear reform- and action-oriented suggestions.

DAYUE (DAVID) FAN reports a survey on greening in Higher TVET in China. As one of the UNEVOC Centres, Shenzhen Polytechnic participated in research that was initiated by UNESCO UNEVOC. Shenzhen Polytechnic carried out a questionnaire survey and document analysis to assess attitudes to greening in three polytechnics in Guangdong Province. The arti­cle provides the readers with the survey background, research processes and methodology and the preliminary research results on greening in construction and agriculture in China.

PHONG CHI DIEP and MARTIN HARTMANN focus on the topic of green skills, with respect to Vocational Teacher Education, as a key driver in technical and vocational education and training. They argue the provision of quality vocational teacher education plays an important role in achieving the supply of adequately skilled workers. In order to ensure that vocational teachers have the necessary competencies to address greening, the professional profile of vocational teachers needs to be continuously developed. On the basis of a literature review and considering features of “the greening of technical and vocational education and training”, the authors propose a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers in the context of sustainable development.

The authors HAMID ZOLKIFLI, YUSRI KAMIN, AZLAN BIN ABDUL LATIB, YAHYA BUNTAT and ZUBAIDAH AWANG from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia focus on the situ­ation in Malaysia and the concept of generic green skills. The authors present the design and the results of a qualitative study, which explored the perspectives of employers and academics about the meaning of generic green skills. They conclude that the concept of generic green skills and the awareness thereof is not very clear for the interviewees, nor is the understanding of environmental friendly practices and learning in TVET. The authors claim that additional studies should be conducted to better understand and stimulate the inclusion of generic green skills in all industries, including green technology-oriented industry, to further improve awareness and implementation practices among the stakeholders.

KATHARINA BAUMGARTEN and STEPHAN KUNZ highlight the topic of greening TVET from a different, but extremely relevant perspective, strongly referring to and reflecting on experiences in Vietnam and the Philippines. The authors especially focus on the agricul­ture and manufacturing sectors, which are traditional industries in Asia and account for the majority of the labor force in Asia. At the same time these sectors are the largest environ­mental polluters. The authors highlight the need for non-formal, on-the-job training and workprocess-integrated learning. They make a case for a practical, non-academic approach to training, matching the demands of the industries, with informal and non-formal learning processes through smart technologies, and consistent with the need of workers and farmers.

JOACHIM DITTRICH, SANDRA PETERS-ERJAWETZ, UTA KÜHNE, and TELSCHE NIELSEN introduce new approaches to engineering education in the wind power sector in northern Germany. The wind power sector is in demand for an appropriately educated and trained workforce at both the skilled worker and the engineer levels. The authors describe an approach to enhancing the permeability between vocational and higher education in order to tackle the shortage in skilled labour. This approach has led to the development of a Bachelor program in wind power technology at the University of Applied Sciences in Bremerhaven in cooperation with the Fraunhofer Institute for Wind Energy and Energy System Technology. The study program especially addresses students, who have a TVET-background and who are presently employed. The article provides information on the German wind power sector and its competence requirements and discusses experiences which derive from granting access to higher education for “non-traditional” students.

The authors HELEN KNIBB and CHRIS PACI present an analysis of the greening of Can­ada´s college curriculum. Canada’s colleges are adept at developing new skills training and educational programs to meet the challenge of responding to a greening economy, environ­mental sustainability and climate change. This paper explores how colleges are leading and responding with examples of: new programs and program modifications, curriculum innova­tion, new strategies for teaching and learning, new types of partnership and a vigorous applied research agenda.  The authors identify three phases of development that characterize curricu­lum greening in Canada’s colleges and institutes. Furthermore, the paper provides an over­view of pan-Canadian college efforts to meet the skills needs of a greening economy. The underlying study focusses on the 137 publicly funded providers of technical/technology training; the colleges, cégeps, (Quebec’s Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel), institutes, and polytechnics, which serve over 3,000 communities Canada wide.

MICHEL ZELIN describes a very distinctive perspective using the topic of greening technical and vocational education and training as the learning objective. His article on empowering green education in TVET through international project-based online competitions describes a highly innovative approach of financing and implementing an online-based learning organi­sation. The author is arguing that competitive online projects are the best way to spark stud­ents’ interest in ecologically friendly production and in incorporating greening in TVET curri­cula. The article reviews the foundation, implementation, and a pilot trial at a community college level, of a free educational platform combining crowdsourcing, crowdfunding, and crowdgaming designed to conduct online learners’ competitions. The competitions can be operated on a level of one class, school, or multiple school partners on an international level. Competitions involving international partners have great potential to engage students in learning the best environmentally safe and prudent processes.

NIC ROBINSON and DENISE BADEN in their article focus on embedding sustainability in the practice of trainee entrants to the hairdressing industry. They argue that there is currently little consideration of the environmental impact of practices within the hair and beauty sector. Hairdressers have the ability to build sustainable practices into the commercial operation of salons and to introduce sustainable practice to their clients. The article is based on a project where awareness of sustainable practice had been built into the Continuing Professional Development (CPD) opportunities for hairdressing tutors provided by UK awarding organisa­tions. The project was conducted by Southampton University and funded by the Economic and Social Research Council (ERSC) and Vocational Training Charitable Trust (VTCT).

We wish you enlightening insights and enjoyable reading.

The editors of Issue 6

Thomas Schröder, Margarita Pavlova, Numyoot Songthanapitak, and Zhao Zhiqun

Citation

Schröder, T., Pavlova, M., Numyoot, S., & Zhiqun, Z. (2016). Editorial Issue 6: The Greening of Technical and Vocational Education and Training In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-4. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/editorial_schroeder_etal_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016).

Reorienting existing educational programs in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for the purposes of advancing the attainment of sustainable development goals (SDGs) through skills development significantly depends on the capacity of educators. This capacity can be enhanced through teacher training and professional development programs based on principles of adult learning, as well as through the use of sustainability related resources designed for use in student-centered TVET classrooms. This paper considers how TVET educators respond to the reorientation of the curriculum towards Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) through the inclusion of generic green skills in a green module that was delivered by one TVET institute in Hong Kong. It examines how different types of teachers respond to sustainability related, work-based training conducted through action research. Four teachers’ attitudes are examined, based on their expertise in ESD and their motivation to change current practice.  Based on the findings, this paper puts forward a work-based learning model for the professional development of TVET teachers that encourages them to learn with researchers and students together. The model can be adjusted to meet the needs of different types of teachers and it has the potential to enhance teachers’ capacity to implement green modules that will support students’ generic green skills development.

Keywords: Teacher training and professional development, TVET, generic green skills, work-based learning professional development model, sustainability related resources, SDGs, experiential learning, transformative learning

1          Introduction

Building the capacities of educators and trainers to facilitate learning for sustainable development has been proposed as one of the five priority action areas in the Roadmap for implementing Global Action Programme (GAP) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (UNESCO 2014). Research on the role of teachers also showed that the competencies to implement high quality education for sustainability are necessary for changes to occur in classroom practice (Pavlova 2009). Thus, issues related to the development of teachers’ competencies for ESD inclusion is an important area for research and development studies.

Since the release of the Guidelines and Recommendations for Reorienting Teacher Education to Address Sustainability (UNESCO) in 2005 (prepared for United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development), teacher education institutions around the world have started to include ESD in teacher training and professional development programs. A range of studies that focused on examining these programs has been conducted to identify the initiatives that include ESD in teacher education. Despite of this effort, a lack of appropriate professional development support for teachers has been consistently identified among the main barriers for inclusion of more ESD related activities in classroom practices (Hill & Elshof 2007; Pavlova 2009). A recent study by Pavlova & Chen (2018) conducted in a technical and vocational education and training (TVET) institution in Hong Kong, revealed the same findings. The study focused on understanding how teachers and students respond to a generic green module that introduced sustainability issues and concepts into the TVET curriculum. Reorienting existing educational programs in TVET for the purposes of advancing the attainment of SDGs through skills development significantly depends on the capacity of educators. The results revealed the need for appropriate professional development to support change in pedagogy as being the priority for curriculum reorientation. The same was identified by Tilbury (2010) who indicated that to use participatory and active learning approaches to support students’ learning for sustainability is a challenge for teachers and it requires professional development because the simple provision of toolkits or resources is insufficient.

This paper discusses existing models of teacher professional development (PD) for ESD, and examines the results of a small-scale study about establishing PD for TVET teachers so they are able to successfully include generic green skills in the curriculum. In particular, the paper presents findings about how teachers learn to implement the ESD resources in their classroom practice. The paper classifies teachers into different types, based on their expertise in ESD and motivation to introduce change, and suggests a work-based learning model for PD that encourages teachers to learn alongside researchers and students. The model has the potential to significantly enhance teachers’ capacity to implement green modules that will support students’ generic green skills development.

2          Current theories and practices of in-service teacher professional development for the purposes of ESD inclusion

This section examines current theories and practices related to including ESD into teacher training. Three models that have been broadly used in ESD initiatives for teacher education were analyzed with the aim of formulating an intervention plan for the study and to develop a work-based learning model for teacher professional development. In addition, two adult learning theories that related to work-based learning are reviewed to understand how teachers respond to training related to curriculum reorientation and to ascertain the extent to which they can be used for the development of a work-based learning model for PD of TVET teachers.

2.1         Three models that informed the development of an in-service teacher professional development model towards ESD inclusion

Ferreira, Ryan and Tilbury (2006) examined a range of teacher training programs to identify models for the professional development of teachers and initiatives developed based on those models that can bring changes toward sustainability education in teacher education. Although the identified models and initiatives were not specific to TVET teachers, they provide an important theoretical foundation for this study that is specifically focused on the development of training/learning models for PD of TVET teachers.   Three models were identified in Ferreira, Ryan and Tilbury (2006) and they are discussed below.

Model 1: The Collaborative Resource Development and Adaptation Model

The Collaborative Resource Development and Adaptation Model that supports teaching and learning resource development and dissemination has been widely used in PD. The model assumes that change occurs through the provision of curriculum resources, combined with pedagogical guidelines and adequate training in the use of those resources.

The resources developed for PD programs that address a range of issues are usually teaching kits, which can be used in a variety of learning settings, such as whole classes, small groups as well as self-guided study materials for in-service teachers. In addition, relevant PD courses are developed along with the resources to assist teachers to implement the materials within particular setting. An examination of different initiatives that have adopted this particular model reveals that resources adaptation and innovation can provide capacity-building opportunities for teachers and teacher educators. Furthermore, the initiatives that involved practicing educators and teacher educators in the process of resource development and resource adaptation to suit local contexts broadened the influence on curriculum change and teacher education. Two examples are: the in-service project Sustainability Education in European Primary Schools (SEEPS) and the Teaching and Learning at the Environment, Science, Society Interface (TaLESSI) (1997-2001). 

Model 2: The Action Research Model

Action research, as a process of PD, can build the capacity of educators through a four-phase cyclical model of critical enquiry, which includes: plan formation, action, outcome observation and reflection. This model assumes that key stakeholders’ deep engagement and support is critical in increasing participants’ competency and propensity to act for change. From this perspective, the longevity of the intervention could be enhanced.

Initiatives that used the action research model also developed a new curriculum, however they sought to develop a deep level of engagement amongst educators as the key agents of change during the process. For example, in order to bring about systemic change the project, Learning for a Sustainable Environment: Innovations in Teacher Education (LSE) (1994-1997) utilized a multi-system partnership approach that was based on the action research model, in order to build a strong relationship between professional development, curriculum development, networking and practitioner-based research within the political, cultural and institutional contexts of teacher education. Participants in this project were supported in the process of material development, experimentation with methodologies and innovation, sharing with colleagues, adapting materials for different cultural settings, and finally evaluating, pilot-testing and refining resources.

Model 3: The Whole-of-System Model

The Whole-of-System Model adopts a comprehensive contextual understanding of the nature of change. The model assumes that change towards sustainability will only occur if all levels and contexts within the system are aligned in their efforts. This systematic model is complex, as it needs to consider the multi-layered factors and components within an organization and leverage top-down and bottom-up approaches towards change simultaneously.

The initiatives based on this model seek to address not only the development of new curriculum content and/or pedagogical approaches towards sustainability, but also to make the change occur in a multi-faceted and system-wide level. For example, the Sustainable Teacher Environmental Education Project (STEEP) (2002-2004) was a good example of creating systemic transformation, by bringing about broad change across the whole of the pre-service teacher education system.

In summary, the change and influence of PD towards ESD inclusion gets progressively deeper and broader from model 1 to model 3. Model 1 focuses more on resources and pedagogical approaches that could be adopted for curriculum reorientation towards ESD inclusion. This model can start with just one learning module, or a whole training program, by including teaching kits that address a range of ESD issues. The change in model 1 usually occurred within the classroom. Model 2 seeks to engage more key stakeholders, and teachers act as researchers to achieve change. They engage in the process of professional development through the development and adaptation of resources and pedagogical approaches. During this process, educators work with experts, or researchers, to identify problems together and make plans, develop the curriculum, implement the intervention plan and evaluate the impact towards ESD inclusion. Model 3 targets systematic change, which needs to align stakeholders within a whole system to work together. If the curriculum is changed, as a part of systematic change, the multi-layered factors and components such as the learning environment, student assessment and educational system are re-examined and changed jointly. Thus, model 3 will have a synergistic effect on curriculum change.

2.2         Adult learning theory that related to work-based learning (WBL)

To design an effective PD program there is a requirement to understand the ways in which adults learn. Different perspectives on adult learning processes offer principles to be used for developing an approach for PD of TVET teachers. Such theories as andragogy, transformational learning, experiential learning, and others put forward a number of principles that can be considered to be the conditions of adult learning. For our study, work-based learning is a key theory to consider, as the context for our study is classrooms where TVET teachers work.

Work-based learning (WBL) refers to the formalization of learning at work, which could be described as “learning for and from work” (Velzen et al. 2012, 230). It can also be briefly and broadly defined as “learning that takes place in a workplace whether as part of a course, while on placement, or independently while an employed worker” (Iredale et al. 2013, 198), whereby opportunities for learning occur in the field, so learners can transform their conceptual knowledge into experimentation or practice. WBL has been used in variety of education and training programs in different disciplines such as nursing, teacher training, vocational training and engineering (World Association for Cooperative Education 2000; Coll, Taylor, & Nathan 2003). In this study, WBL was provided to TVET teachers and focused on how to implement and adjust the ESD teaching and learning resources in their classroom settings. They also gained ESD teaching and learning experiences through close collaboration with a researcher. 

Experience and reflection have been identified as two essential components in work-based learning (Iredale et al. 2013). Both theory and research demonstrate that learning through experience greatly benefits adult learners at WBL (Sisselman-Borgia & Torino 2017). The combination of theorized thinking with practitioner’s real-world experiences and learning makes reflection on practice a powerful tool in WBL (Helyer 2015). In its Guidelines and Recommendations for Reorienting Teacher Education for ESD, UNESCO (2005) also identified the necessity of including real-life experience in teacher education to address sustainability.  Many studies confirm the importance of experiential learning and reflective learning for teacher education. Pennington (1995) highlights that experiential learning was paramount in bringing about change and development in teachers’ prior beliefs and behavior. Dewey (1933, 1938) stresses that reflective learning is a critical component of teacher education.  Below we examine experiential and reflective learning as essential aspects of WBL for teacher professional development.

2.2.1        Experiential learning

Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) emphasizes the central role experience plays in the learning process. It defines learning as

“the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation to experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (Kolb 1984, 41, cited in Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis 1999).

In the ELT model, grasping experience is dialectically related to learning stages of concrete experience (CE) and abstract conceptualization (AC), while transforming experience is related to reflective observation (RO) and active experimentation (AE). Learning, from this perspective, is conceived as a four-stage cycle as shown in Figure 1.

“Immediate concrete experience is the basis for observation and reflection. These observations are assimilate into a ‘theory’ from which new implications for action can be deduced. These implications or hypotheses then serve as guides in acting to create new experiences.” (Kolb & Fry 1975, 34).

Figure1: The experiential learning model (Kolb & Fry 1975, 33)

Kolb & Fry (1975) regard learning as an integrated process with each stage feeding into the next and being mutually supportive of each stage. The learner reflects on the experience and generates abstract concepts, which become the conclusions that can be applied to new experiences. In addition, the cyclical nature of the model also means it is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through the logical sequence.

Moon (2004) later proposed a reproductive cycle that follows Kolb & Fry’s terminology, but reverses “abstract conceptualization” and “reflection”, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The reproductive experiential learning model (Moon 2004, 126)

Although the learning sequences in the two models differ slightly, the same key processes are involved – experiential learning facilitates the learner to transform concrete experience into active experimentation through reflection and abstract conceptualization in order to achieve change.

2.2.2        Reflective learning

Moon (2004) suggests that reflective learning simply emphasizes the intention of learning as a result of reflection. There are four ways reflection is involved in learning.

First, reflection is involved in the process of meaningful learning when a learner takes a deep approach in order to grasp the meaning of new material with reference to previous knowledge. Second, reflection is involved when learning is represented meaningfully (e.g. the act of teaching is an example of representation of meaningful knowledge). During this process, the learning material needs to be modified to meet the requirements of the purpose and the format of knowledge representation. As a consequence, a greater understanding of new ideas can be gained if they are represented through the reformulation of current understanding.

The third way reflection is involved in the learning process is by “upgrading learning”, which means that although there may be nothing new to learn in terms of content, ideas learned in a relatively non-meaningful way are reconsidered in the light of new experience in order to make less meaningful learning more meaningful (‘deepened’) (Moon 1999). Thus, reflection on ideas is based on reconsidered experience. Finally, reflection is involved when learners generate apparently new and meaningful ideas, which are not immediately related to existing knowledge but are based on what they “know” already (their prior experience). This process is similar to intuition, and is encapsulated in the phrase, “I saw the light” (Atkinson & Claxton 2002, cited in Moon 2004).

Boud, Keogh, & Walker (1985) indicate that reflection in the context of learning is a generic term that refers to learner’s engagement in the exploration of experiences, in order to gain new understandings and appreciations. They proposed a model that illustrates the reflective processes in learning (Figure 3).

Figure3: The reflective process in context (Boud, Keogh, & Walker 1985)

This model reveals the relationship between experience(s) and different reflective processes. The totality of experiences includes: the behavior people have performed, the ideas of which people are aware and the feelings they have experienced. Each of these experiences can become the subject of reflection by returning to the experience and re-evaluating it. The outcomes of this type of reflective learning are that learners gain new perspectives on their experiences, they make changes in behavior, and demonstrate readiness and commitment to act (Boud, Keogh, & Walker 1985).

Accordingly, Boud, Keogh, & Walker’s (1985) and Moon’s (2004) models both suggest that learners’ prior experience as well as new experience are the essential foundations for reflective learning. Through the cycle of returning and re-evaluating experience(s), learners become involved in the process of knowledge application and make changes to their behavior, attitudes and values.

In summary, following the examination of three models that have been effectively used for teacher education for ESD implementation in the curriculum and analysis of critical theories and models related to work-based learning that have been selected as the context for PD learning for our research, we developed a theoretical framework for this study that is discussed in the next section.

3          Methodology

This study is a small-scale qualitative research project that utilizes action research as the overall methodological approach. It is done in accord with Model 2 discussed in the previous section, as this approach allows teachers to be involved in curriculum reform in the workplace. The intention of this study was to engage and support teachers to implement, and adjust, resources designed by the research team for developing students’ generic green skills in TVET. Although training about how to use resources can be classified under model 1 (see previous section) teachers had the opportunity to engage and modify resources and pedagogical strategies for their classrooms based on reflections and interactions with the researchers.

This section discusses the approach for action research used in this study and the intervention plan developed for the research, with reference to the PD models reviewed above.

3.1         Action Research – Definition and Cycle Model

Cunningham (1993) defined “action research” as

“a term for describing a spectrum of activities that focus on research, planning, theorizing, learning, and development.” (4).

Action research has been used for both pragmatic studies that focus on collaborative problem solving and joint learning, as well as experimental studies that focus on theory building and experimentation (Cunningham 1993).

Thus action research, which includes a spectrum of activities carried out in different processes for different objectives such as research, planning, theorizing, learning, and development, can be applied to different settings. Action research in this study is viewed as a series of actions, such as developing learning materials, conducting classroom observations, improving classroom practice and enhancing teachers’ capacity to implement a generic green module to support the achievement of SDGs.

Action research is regarded as one kind of action inquiry (Figure 4), which follows

“a cycle to improve practice by systematically oscillating between taking action in the field of practice, and inquiry of them” (Tripp 2005, 2).

Figure 4: The four-phase representation of the basic action inquiry cycle (Tripp 2005, 2)

The cycle begins with planning an improvement, followed by implementing the planned improvement, and then goes on to monitoring and describing the effects of the action. The end of a cycle is an evaluation of outcomes, which also forms the beginning of the next cycle. It should be noted that different actions will be required in each phase and, in addition, actions can start at different phases. This depends on the specific purposes the basic action inquiry cycle is used for.

The problem-focused improvement process is a central feature in the design of most action research projects (Rosaline 2008, 6).  The spiral model of the action research cycle (see Figure 5) moves continuously as an iterative process through the stages of:

1) Identification of the problem    

2) Planning of the intervention

3) Implementation

4) Evaluation of change

Figure 5: The spiral of action research (Rosaline 2008, 7).

The end of one cycle is the beginning of the next. This study was based on two cycles. Evaluation of the first cycle formed the basis of the beginning of the second cycle, where further actions needed to be planned based on specific problems that emerged in classroom practice, as well as teachers and students’ responses and reflections on current and previous actions.

3.2         Participants and setting

This study was conducted at a TVET institution in Hong Kong and involved the delivery of the enrichment green module, “green knowledge and practice”. Researchers worked with four different teachers who agreed to use teaching and learning resources designed for the development of generic green skills (Pavlova & Chen 2018) into the current module through two classroom sessions. The sessions were three hours each and assessment was one final project. Action research was used to enhance teachers’ capacity to address students’ generic green skills development throughout the green module.  One session was focused on green technology, the other on the closed-loop economy. The topic for the final project was “Urban innovation for the sustainable development in Hong Kong” which was based on the concept of sustainable innovation.

Four classes of students (a total of 115 students) were involved in this action research. Two of these were part-time students majoring in construction, the other two were full-time students majoring in a variety of subjects, such as hotel management, IT and early childhood education, etc. Four teachers were also involved in this study, and they were both part-time and full-time.

3.3         Intervention plan

The intervention plan developed below illustrates the activities that were carried out through different processes to meet different objectives. The identified processes included: resource introduction, lesson demonstration, reflective conversation, resource adjustment and classroom practice. This intervention plan consisted of six steps and was based on two action research cycles.

Step 1: Introduce resources and discuss with teachers how to use them – before the class

The researcher introduced the resources and discussed what was included in the teaching kits and what pedagogical strategies were suggested for teaching. This was completed with all teachers teaching the module. The researcher also discussed how to include resources in teaching, based on the current teaching and learning content of the module. Then four teachers who were interested in participating were identified and the researcher had an individual discussion with each of them before the first class. At this stage, the researcher connected the new teaching materials to the teachers’ previous teaching experience and tried to understand the challenges or concerns teachers may have.

Step 2: Demonstrate how to implement resources – during the class

The researcher demonstrated how to implement the resources, so the teachers could observe the use of different pedagogical approaches and curriculum resources to bring change to both the classroom and teacher-student interaction. This demonstration consisted of two parts. First the researcher gave a half hour lecture to review the learning content with students in an interactive manner, and the second part was different for the teachers who engaged in the study. Some of them continued to observe, some worked with the researcher to facilitate group discussions. For several teachers, their role during the second cycle changed.

Step 3: Conduct reflective conversation with teacher – after the class

After the demonstration and the end of the class, the researcher conducted a reflective conversation with each teacher individually that focused on what they thought about the new resources and the change to pedagogical approaches as well changes in student’s learning in the classroom. Reflective conversation is a key step that helps the researcher understand the teacher’s perceptions of change and encourages the teacher to think about how to improve current practice in the next cycle.

Step 4: Adjusting the teaching materials and/or teaching strategies with teacher together – before the next class

The researcher adjusted teaching materials and/or teaching strategies with each teacher based on the reflective conversations, so that the resources and teaching approaches were tailored to fit different learning settings and needs. The researcher provided suggestions based on the teachers’ questions and concerns.

Step 5: Teacher tries to use the resources and apply student-centered teaching strategies

The ultimate goal was to support teachers to design their next lesson, so they could manage overall classroom instruction, based on suggested/adjusted resources. Some teachers were able to achieve this, so the researcher acted as a co-teacher or assistant during the second class. However, in one class the researcher continued with teaching the class as one cycle was not enough for one teacher to feel confident to teach on her own. Therefore, this step remained flexible and teachers exhibited different levels of leadership in terms of teaching.

Step 6: Conduct reflective conversation with teacher – after the second class

After teachers tried to implement the resources in the classroom, the researcher conducted a reflective conversation with each teacher individually. At this last step of an intervention cycle there was a need to facilitate teachers to reflect on teaching and learning that was based on the use of suggested/adjusted resources, to provide feedback to the teacher about how to improve further and put in place an action plan for the next cycle.

During the implementation of this model, the main differences were at step 5. For the first cycle, the researcher performed a lesson demonstration using the same material kit in each of the four classes. After that, the researcher conducted reflective conversation with teachers individually. For the second cycle (step 5), one teacher was happy to try out a whole materials kit by himself, two teachers engaged to some extent in the overall instructions and tried out part of the materials during small group discussions, and one teacher preferred to act as an observer while the researcher taught. Thus, during the interventions, the teachers were engaged in co-teaching differently.

4          Findings and Suggestions

This section reports on how different teachers respond to curriculum reorientation towards ESD inclusion and classifies teachers into types. It also introduces a work-based learning model that could be used for PD to enhance teachers’ capacity to develop students’ generic green skills in TVET. It encourages teachers to learn in the classroom by co-teaching with the researcher and using different pedagogy and teaching/learning resources.

4.1         How different types of teachers respond to the curriculum reorientation towards ESD inclusion

The results of this study identified that different teachers engaged differently in the process of curriculum reorientation towards ESD inclusion. Based on the researcher’s observations and reflective conversations during the study, as well as a selection of a particular type of co-teaching, it was noted that teachers’ backgrounds in terms of exposure to sustainability issues and readiness for change were among the main factors that influence teachers’ behavior. Differences in teachers’ attitudes within this study also indicated that they might need to have different forms of PD. Thus, a PD program should be flexible and designed to equip different teachers with ESD competencies.

4.1.1        A two-dimension framework for the identification of different types of teacher

In searching for an approach for classifying teachers into different types, the researchers referred to the study by Pitt & Lubben (2009) who classified teachers into three types, based on teachers’ different motives for engaging in the Sustainable Design Award (SDA) project during their teaching. (SDA asked teachers to provide opportunities for students of Design and Technology [D&T] classes to formulate and realize a D&T project that addresses sustainability issues). These three types include:

1) SD devotees. The teachers who are passionate about, and committed to, sustainable development (SD) before getting involved in the SDA project. Therefore, the SDA project became a vehicle for them to integrate SD into their Design and Technology teaching.

2) SD seekers. The teachers who are looking for more connected thinking for D&T teaching. The SDA project approach could work as a cohesive framework and represent new mindset with which to underpin their overall approach to teaching D&T.

3) SD surfers. The teachers who consider the SDA project as “just-another-award” scheme. They don’t encourage students to engage in the SD Award, and also don’t adopt an SD curriculum but they do consider entering students for alternative schemes, such as the Design and Innovation Award for Young Engineers.

Based on this approach, that is focused on teachers’ motivation for introducing sustainability into their teaching of D&T (Pitt & Lubben 2009), the researchers proposed a two-dimensional framework (see Figure 6) to identify different types of teacher as well as their needs in terms of work-based professional development for ESD inclusion. The first dimension is related to teachers’ working experience relevant to sustainability (this is a very important influential factor, as most of the teachers teaching in green modules in TVET are not specialized in sustainability subjects). The second dimension is related to teachers’ motivation to achieve pedagogical change for ESD inclusion.

According to this proposed classification framework, the four teachers involved in this study were located differently in Figure 6. Below is an introduction to each teacher that highlights their work experience in relation to sustainability and their motivation to making pedagogical change for ESD inclusion.

Teacher A has rich work experiences related to sustainability in the construction sector. He conducts research on developing building materials and green technologies that are environmentally friendly, and has more than 10 patents in this area (e.g. related to green brick and solar panels). Now he is a part-time teacher of two generic green modules for part-time construction students. Teacher A said he is used to facilitating project-based and problem-based learning. He strongly believed that in a more interactive learning setting students could learn more and reflect more on what they learned.  

Teacher B is a full-time teacher working in the engineering department. He does not have much work experience related to sustainability, but is familiar with some important sustainability issues within his area, such as renewable energy. He believes that inclusion of more interactive classroom activities can increase students’ classroom engagement. He also considered that lecture–based classroom practice should be changed, but he also worried that the knowledge-based assessment couldn’t encourage teachers and students to make the change.

1. A two-dimensional framework for the identification of different types of teacher (Source: authors)

Teacher C is a full-time teacher of a mathematics-related subject in this TVET institute, and he works as a part-time teacher for this generic green module. He majored in chemistry at university, but does not have work experience related to sustainability. He said he is not very familiar with sustainability issues and also the teaching content, so generally he needed to take time to learn from the teaching and learning resources first and then think about how to implement in a classroom. However, he thought the materials were quite interesting and could expand his knowledge, so he was willing to spend time learning them. He also considered problem and project-based learning to be an effective pedagogical approach to implement ESD in TVET, even though he did not have experience teaching in multi-disciplinary subjects.

Teacher D is a part-time teacher who does not have any work experience related to sustainability. She did not care much about how students learn or about the importance of including ESD in TVET sector. Before the intervention, she just followed the teaching content provided by the module coordinator in the form of PowerPoint presentations, and did not attempt to make changes/improvements. She does not have sufficient motivation to engage in the introduction of new resources.

4.1.2        The responses of different types of teachers in this study

1) The teacher who has more sustainability related experience tends to be more willing to engage in the curriculum reorientation for ESD inclusion and also to embrace the ESD. It is easier for him to understand and implement the resources in the classroom. Specifically, he (teacher A in this study) has more prior experience and these become the sources for reflection and can also reflect on his WBL in different ways (the four different ways were summarized in section 2.2.2 above). These factors would contribute to achieving outcomes in terms of action and commitment in the Boud, Keogh, & Walker (1985) model. Teacher A reported that

“For me, it is very easy to handle the new resources. I don’t need to spend lots of time to understand it. I am familiar with the content, so it will be easy for me to think about how to organize the learning activities and also facilitate the discussion.”

2) When teachers, as learners, identify a need to “learn” more about sustainability, they tend to have higher motivation to get involved in professional development towards ESD inclusion (e.g. teacher C in this study). The process that makes teachers aware of the “need” relates to the learning stage in Kolb’s model of gaining concrete experience, and observing and reflecting. With respect to the intervention in this study, it started from an introduction to the resources, then progressed to a lesson demonstration and ended with reflective conversation. Teacher C, is the teacher who has less experience but higher motivation in this study, reported that

“I did spend time to learn the new resource before I implement. And I feel like that if I want to be a professional teacher teaching in this module, I have to expand my understanding of sustainability. During the lesson demonstration [by the researcher], I facilitate the discussion and also learn with students together, thus not only focus on the pedagogy about how to implement but also on the learning content.”

3) The teacher who has more meaningful experience with respect to the changes tends to understand the new resources better and generates more ideas about how to implement them. Teacher B had some, but not rich, work experience related to sustainability and was also willing to make a change. After the first lesson demonstration by the researcher, he started to design and organize subsequent tutorials based on the resources by himself. He reported that

“Compare to the prior lessons, using the new resource encouraged more students to engage in class activities. I can feel that most of the students more enjoyed the discussion and also came out with interesting ideas as the solutions for sustainability issues. Through observation and also through try out new resources by myself, I got more ideas about how to implement and change the pedagogy accordingly.”

4) The teacher who has the least work experience related to sustainability and a low motivation for change tended to be less willing to play a role in co-teaching or even act as an assistant. For example, teacher D in this study remained an observer though she recognized the change among students. She reported that

“When I sit in the classroom and observe the lesson demonstration, I can see student become a more active learner and also the issues and case studies that related to local context are really helpful to students’ understanding.”

In summary, the data collected by this study enables us to argue that teachers’ work experience related to sustainability, and their motivation to make changes in pedagogical practice towards ESD influence their responses to the curriculum reorientation as well as the teacher training provided by the researchers. Considering these observed differences, the work-based learning model suggested by this study for teachers’ professional development towards ESD inclusion in the curriculum should be flexible enough to facilitate the engagement of different teachers. This model is discussed in more detail in the next section.

4.2         Work-based learning model for in-service TVET teachers’ PD towards ESD inclusion

As stated early in this paper, different types of teachers respond differently to reorienting the curriculum to include ESD. However through observation and reflection on how teachers learn about ESD and learn to include ESD into their teaching, while working with researcher to implement new generic green skills resources (refer to section 3.3 intervention plan), three key learning processes were identified, including: learning from demonstration, learning from reflection and learning from practice. In this study, although ESD resources were used as a starting point for PD, the suggested PD model that can enhance teachers’ capacity to include ESD into the current curriculum and pedagogical practice is also based on action research (a critical enquiry). This entails actively engaging teachers in the ways these resources can be adapted to their classroom. Thus, in a sense, the suggested PD model is a combination of model 1 and model 2 presented in section 2.1.

The work-based learning model (see Figure 7) has been developed based on the learning processes identified through this research combined with some elements of the theories of experiential learning and reflective learning. The model illustrates how teachers’ perception and behavior can be changed through three key learning processes, within a two-way cycle. Between the learning processes of demonstration and reflection, teachers are expected to gain concrete experiences about how to use the resources and observe how students respond to them in the classroom, and also to reflect on the new experiences in relation to their prior experiences. As a result, these learning processes facilitate the change of teachers’ perception towards including the ESD resources as well as pedagogical practices. Through the learning processes of reflection and practice, which were identified as “active experimentation” in Kolb & Fry’s (1975) model and which emphasize understanding of implications of new actions and development of new experiences, teachers’ teaching behaviors have been facilitated to change (including the use of student-centered pedagogy).

Figure 6: Work-based learning model for TVET teachers’ professional development towards ESD inclusion (Source: authors)

Three major components of the work-based learning model, and the ways it facilitates teachers’ perceptions and behavior change, are examined in the next section.

4.2.1        Demonstration is a pivotal starting point for introducing new teaching and learning resources and pedagogical approaches for curriculum reorientation

As indicated in section 3.2, teachers of this module are not very familiar with the concept of sustainability, relevant issues and pedagogical approaches that are needed for the inclusion of ESD. The traditional way they implement the module was to follow the materials (PowerPoint with notes) provided to them, and use a lecture-based teaching approach. This would be followed by a test-based assessment. Teachers in this type of situation did not think about making changes, as they didn’t have a content knowledge about ESD or the pedagogical skills to organize more interactive teaching and learning activities to engage students. These factors cause difficulties for the introduction of the developed ESD resources. Therefore, the lesson demonstration by the researcher provided an opportunity for teachers to observe new classroom practice.

Putnam & Johns (1987) reviewed the studies that examined different types of demonstrations used in teacher training programs and found that the programs that include demonstration are more effective than those that do not. They summarized the functions of demonstrations as (1) to illustrate teacher instructional behaviors or thinking and decision making processes related to planning and reflection; (2) a stage in the development of desired teaching behavior; (3) an opportunity to assess the cognitive processing skills of students; (4) a means of illustrating the integration of theoretical, research and practical knowledge; (5) a way of critically questioning the rationale for the use of and/or the effects of ideas demonstrated; (6) to develop professors’ credibility as they teach and manage students in a class; and (7) a means for professors to explore ideas and remain current about students (577). Although the literature also revealed problems in using demonstrations, such as the unintended messages or misinterpretations that can cause problems in transfer, the demonstrations used in this study brought out positive results and achieved most of the functions summarized in Putnam & Johns (1987) above.

For this research, the findings from classroom observations and reflective conversations revealed that the lesson demonstrations by the researcher provided a direct opportunity for teachers to observe how students respond to the use of new resources, which, to some extent, reduced teachers’ nervousness about change. In particular, when teachers saw students’ positive reactions and their active engagement in classroom activities, the teachers’ perceptions that the new resources can effectively enrich their teaching and students’ learning have been developed. Since the teachers witnessed the changes themselves, they became more willing to find out more about the ESD resources and try to include them in their classroom practices. For instance, teacher D in this study was observed to be passively engaged in the intervention. She didn’t seem to care about what students had learned or how they learned, but after she witnessed the positive change in students’ during the demonstration lesson, she stated, “I can see students are interested in today’s learning materials and they engaged much more in the learning activities.” In addition, demonstrating how to implement the resources in authentic classroom practices is an effective way of clarifying the underlying principles of student-centered learning embedded in the resources and to introduce relevant pedagogical approaches.

Thus, it can be argued that the researcher’s demonstration is a very pivotal step at the beginning of a PD program, as it can present teachers with evidence about how the change could turn out, the challenges teachers may face and also how to include/adjust the ESD resources into current modules, based on students’ learning experiences such as their learning backgrounds and learning habits.

4.2.2        The cycle of demonstration, reflection and practice can facilitate the change from perception to behavior

Teachers’ learning can occur and start with any of identified processes (Figure 7). However, findings from interviews and reflective conversations with teachers revealed that to start with demonstration and then reflect on what has been observed through reflective conversations before going to practice is an effective approach towards initiating changes from perception to behavior. The rationale underlying this approach is related to the relationship between perception and behavior: perception change is a fundamental prerequisite for facilitating behavior change in teaching practice (e.g. pedagogical approaches and lesson design), and behavior change can, in turn, reinforce perception change. There are two basic principles underlying the use of this model.

First, in the cycle between demonstration and reflection, demonstration plays a vital role in creating a valuable tension between the outcomes of current practices and the potential outcomes of theoretical or research-based ideas, which helps teachers to become aware of problems (e.g. a lack of interaction between teachers and students) that exist in current practices and the challenges they face. With respect to reflection, it is important to focus the reflection on how the new resources help to improve, or even solve, the identified problems as well as how to implement the new resources in classroom practices.

Second, with reference to the experiential and reflective learning reviewed in section 2.2, reflection creates a link that connects existing knowledge to new experiences that lead to future actions. This process facilitates the transformation between concrete experience and active experimentation (the application of new experience). Concrete experiences gained through demonstration could be transformed into new experiences through pre-reflection (reflecting before practice), while practical experience generated from active experimentations could become concrete experiences through post-reflection (reflecting after practice) as well. Thus, learning through reflection is an essential process in connecting demonstration and practice, and it leads to the potential for change in perception and behavior towards ESD inclusion.

4.2.3        How to adjust this model to different types of teachers

The suggested PD model is flexible enough to meet the learning requirements of different types of teachers. The findings demonstrate that the teachers who either have rich work experience related to sustainability or high motivation to make change are more likely to enter the cycle between reflection and practice, and learn better through practice. On the other hand, the teachers who either have insufficient work experience related to sustainability or who have lower motivation to make change are more comfortable to remain in the cycle between demonstration and reflection. They require more concrete experiences that are generated from demonstration as reflective sources to understand the ideas, and also the resources, and the relevant change to pedagogical approaches. Therefore, for teacher A, who has rich work experience relevant to sustainability and who got used to facilitate project-based learning, the perception towards ESD inclusion was very positive. He needed more support during the process of “learning from practice”, such as adjusting the developed ESD resources for his class to maximize the effectiveness of those adapted resources for developing students’ generic green skills. Teacher B, who had a bit more experience relevant to sustainability but less motivation to utilize student-center pedagogical approach than teacher C, needed more support for pedagogical understanding and assistance in facilitating the small group work. The demonstration needed to clearly show him how to organize the learning activities so they could provide more interactive learning opportunities for students. Furthermore, although teacher C had few experiences relevant to sustainability, he had a higher motivation to make changes towards including ESD, which made him became an active learner while trying out the resources. He needed more support during the process of “learning through reflection”, so the researcher needed to provide feedback to increase his understanding about the resources and improve his practice related to ESD pedagogical strategies. For teacher D, who neither had experience relevant to sustainability nor higher motivation in making changes, she required more support to understand the principles underlying the resources to facilitate perception change. Thus, learning through “demonstration” was important for her. The demonstration helped her not only gain content knowledge, but also to understand how students learn and why ESD pedagogical strategies (e.g. learning from real-world problem solving, stimulus activities and debates) are effective in developing students’ generic green skills.   

In summary, this proposed work-based learning model revealed the significance of demonstration as a key learning process for transforming teachers’ perceptions towards embracing change from the beginning. It also illustrated how the three identified learning processes work together to bring about the potential for change of perception and behavior that can facilitate the inclusion of ESD. Finally, the model revealed the implication of work-based learning on developing in-service teacher training and professional development program.

5          Conclusion

This paper examined selected adult learning theories and models of teacher professional development for ESD, and reported the results of a small-scale study related to establishing PD for TVET teachers for the purposes of introducing generic green skills into the curriculum. Particularly, it presented the findings on how different types of teachers learned to use the developed ESD resources in classroom practice and classified teachers into different types, based on their responses to workplace (classroom) learning for implementing the resources. It also put forward a work-based learning PD model for TVET teachers based on the learning processes identified through action research. This model demonstrates how teachers’ perception and behavior change through the WBL learning cycles.

This study is significant as it highlighted the support required for different types of TVET teachers for ESD inclusion in their teaching for the purposes of developing students’ generic green skills. We suggest a WBL model that can be used for PD of teachers to respond to their particular needs. The WBL model presented in this paper has the potential to contribute to both the theories and practices of TVET teacher PD for ESD. As a result of this study, TVET teachers’ capacity to implement green modules for students’ generic green skills development were greatly improved. 

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Citation

Pavlova, M. & Chen, C. S. (2020). Enhancing TVET teachers’ capacity to develop students’ generic green skills: a work-based learning model for professional development of teachers. In: TVET@Asia, issue 14, 1-23. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue/issue-14/pavlova-etal(retrieved 30.12.2019).

The transition to low-carbon economies that address climate change and reduce the environmental impact of development is a pressing issue for governments in Asia. Ambitious targets set by many countries in the region require the implementation of specific measures to ensure environmentally sustainable economic growth. The greening of jobs and the development of necessary skills are essential requirements for successful green transitions. This article analyses various drivers that impact upon the greening of skills in the region. It refers to several studies conducted by the author that examine current practices. The article also identifies five enabling factors that should be systematically addressed for the greening of technical and vocational education and training(TVET).

Keywords: Greening of the economy, governments’ role, Asia-Pacific region, green skills, dimensions of TVET greening, systematic reform, greening of TVET curriculum, barriers for greening skills, drivers behind greening of skills

1 Introduction: the greening of the economy

The transition to low–carbon economies that address climate change and reduce the environmental impact of development is a pressing issue for governments in Asia. To support growth in Asia and the Pacific region there is a need to prioritise policies specifically related to greening: “towards closing social and infrastructure gaps within countries and to propagating the green economy” (UN 2012 49). Responding to the tensions between environmental challenges and development, many governments in the region have set up ambitious targets to progress towards the greening of their economies. Such overarching policies as the National action Plan for Haritha Lanka Program (Sri Lanka); (National Council for Sustainable Development 2009); The Vietnam Sustainable Development Strategy for 2011-2020 (Vietnam Government 2012); The Vietnam National Green Growth Strategy (Vietnam Government 2012); The National Action Plan for Climate Change and its Eight Missions in India (Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change 2012); The 12th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of China (2011–2015) (The State Council The People’ Republic of China 2011); Law of the Republic of Indonesia No.17/2017 on the Long Term National Plan 2005-2025; Green Development policy approved in 2014 by Mongolian government (Mongolian National Environmental Policy Development Parliament’s resolution #47, 2014) outline long-term integrated strategies for economic development in the context of climate change and low-carbon growth.

Therefore many governments have committed to a pro-green agenda that supports inclusive green growth. In addition, governments in the region adopted specific regulations that facilitate the greening of particular sectors such as RA 9513 in the Philippines (for the purposes of increasing the use of renewable energy to reduce the country’s dependence on fossil fuels); or The National Plan for Sustainable Agricultural Development in China (approved by the China State Council in March 2015 and which directs the sector towards water saving technologies, environmentally friendly technologies and the cessation of farmland pollution).

Despite positive developments in environmental and climate change policies and the implementation of measures to promote environmentally sustainable economic growth, they remain a challenge for many countries. The Global Sustainable Competitiveness Index (GSCI) measures “the set of institutions, policies and factors that make a nation remain productive over the longer term while ensuring social and environmental sustainability” (World Economic Forum 2014) and maps countries’ comparative positions internationally. This index measures how sustainable the productivity level of an economy is with respect to environmental stewardship and social sustainability (World Economic Forum 2014). The GSCI was developed by adjusting the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) through incorporating the social sustainability and environmental sustainability pillars. The current standing of countries in the region varies significantly and out of 113 countries assessed globally some countries such as Pakistan and Timor-Leste ranked as low as 105-109 places.

The transition towards a greener economy requires a diverse range of skills in both environmental industries such as renewable energy, waste management, water conservation, environmental monitoring services as well as all other industries such as construction, agriculture, transport, tourism and hospitality. Changes in employment structures, the emergence of green jobs and the introduction of green technologies in different industry and service sectors as well as agriculture have a significant influence on skills requirements at different occupational levels. This challenge has a potential to worsen existing skills gaps in Asia and the Pacific region. Between 24 to 80 percent of employers surveyed by the Manpower Group reported difficulties associated with skills shortages (Table 1).The term “skills shortage” refers to both quantitative (labour shortages) and qualitative (skill gaps) lack of skills. “Skills shortage” is defined as “a genuine lack of adequately skilled individuals available in the accessible labor market with the type of skill being sought and which leads to a difficulty in recruitment. A skill shortage characterizes the situation where employers are unable to recruit staff with the skills they are looking for at the going rate of pay” (Strietska–Ilina 2008, 199). For greening industries (see an example of green construction industry in China, Figure 1) the difficulty in finding people with the required technical expertise has increased.

Table 1:             Percentage of employers who experience difficulties in recruitment (Aring 2012)

Figure 1: Barriers to investment in green buildings in China, 2012 versus 2011 ( EU SME Centre 2013)

The importance of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) has been well documented in reports, research studies and other sources (e.g. CEDEFOP 2012; Strietska-Ilina et al. 2011; OECD 2011). In particular, The Third World TVET Congress organised by UNESCO in 2012 clearly identified the pivotal role of TVET in the quest to build greener economies and solve unemployment issues. The Congress published Shanghai Consensus: Recommendations of the Third International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education and Training “Transforming TVET: Building skills for work and life” that provided recommendations to governments and highlighted the importance of adjusting TVET qualifications and programs in order to develop relevant skills for the greening of the economy in addition to facilitating advances in sustainable development.

This article refers to several studies conducted by the author in the region and discusses one challenge that hinders the greening of skills: the identification and support of major drivers behind skills and occupational changes. At least three other challenges were identified through the author’s research: (i) the identification of the nature of green skills and ways to deliver training; (ii) the development of a normative framework and curricula; and (iii) the inclusion of green skills in informal learning. These three challenges are not, however, examined in this paper.

2 The greening of skills

The analysis of international reports that highlight the importance of education and training in the pursuit of green growth strategies (e.g. CEDEFOP 2012; Strietska-Ilina et al 2011; OECD 2011) provides evidence that the scope, and introduction, of specific green-related training programs varies across the countries. More than half the countries that participated in the OECD (2011) survey reported they had implemented such programs and indicated that green education and training programs will play a significant role in enabling workers to participate in the green economy. However, another report by CEDEFOP (2012) warned that the reality is that there is a lack of demand in the development of new qualifications which prevents learning providers from developing new learning content. In addition, any developments that are being created operate at a slow pace. Furthermore, it is difficult for TVET providers to meet “the needs of employers with diverse occupational profiles and to understand the skills needs of organisations” (CEDEFOP 2012, 9).

For developing countries the situation is even more complex. When countries do not have well-developed mechanisms for adjusting to the changing needs of the labour market (education and training systems are less responsive) then companies usually account for the largest share of skill provision. Strietska-Ilina, Hofmann, Durán Haro, & Jeon (2011) concludes that in many developing countries governments and formal TVET providers have not yet responded to the skill challenges associated with environmental issues and climate change. Training responses are often isolated and sporadic, and their impact on the greening of industries as well as the overall economy remains limited (Strietska-Ilina et al. 2011, 142). The majority of these reports examined specialised green skills related to new green occupations which might require the introduction of new training programs.

Economic restructuring with the purpose of attaining a cleaner, more climate–resilient, efficient economy that preserves environmental sustainability and provides decent work conditions mainly requires up-skilling, or augmenting existing core skills to enable a person to fulfil a new occupation (CEDEFOP 2010), or performing the same occupation in a greener manner by applying greener practices and technologies. These top-up skills will be analysed in the paper by providing some results of a study funded by UNESCO–UNEVOC International Centre for which the author was a research consultant. The project, “Green Skills – Top up approaches: How TVET Institutions are responding in Asia and the Pacific region”, examined how TVET institutions in Asia and the Pacific region have responded to the challenge of greening skills. Surveys were distributed to TVET students and TVET teachers to map training related to green knowledge, skills and competencies as well as teaching/training and learning in formal TVETs in the Philippines, China, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Mongolia was presented separately due to its relative large sample compared to other countries. The study focused on two sectors: construction and agriculture, and explored how greening by topping up skills is embedded in TVET programs and how this related to the governments’ agenda for greening societies and economies.

3 TVET perspective: major drivers behind skills and occupational changes

When applied to formal TVETs, skills and occupational challenges relate to the identification and support of major drivers behind program changes in TVET institutions. Data collected through interviews during several studies, conducted by the author, identified the following drivers for greening TVET programs in the region:

• International training standards used by vocational training providers (VTPs) often include environmental protection issues (e.g. for marine training – International Marine Organisation standards)
• Environmental legislation (e.g. emission control systems that influence the inclusion of particular modules in training)
• Rules and regulations in industry sectors (e.g. for training for the hospitality sector – hygiene in food preparation; for security in hotels – environmental protection)
• New occupations (e.g. the introduction of specialised green skills such as having eco-tourism as one of the subjects in a tour guide specialisation)
• VTPs initiatives (e.g. the introduction of a hybrid engine module into curriculum; creating start-up teams to develop green technologies to deal with environmental concerns)
• Government initiatives (e.g. universities and technical colleges are requested to identify subject areas to incorporate issues of sustainable development; the development of modules, subjects and units for both specific and generic green skills initiated by ministries that TVET providers should include in their programs or use when developing programs)

Each of the above drivers contributes toward greening TVET; however their impact varies from country to country. For example in Mongolia, where the government push towards greening TVET is in its early stages, TVET providers play a crucial role. This can be illustrated by the case of the Mongolian Korean Polytechnic School that introduced a competency unit on ecological training; developed teaching materials, established a waste management system and introduced a new program on renewable energy (solar and wind). Students and staff have been involved in developing a green strategy for the school and they plan to include green competencies in all their programs within five years. In the countries where the government push is stronger, the initiative of training providers remains significant. Tran Hyng Dao Vocational College in Vietnam recognised a demand for eco–food from its expanding tourist industry. The college also identified a demand for specific green skills on food export and productivity and invited experts from Hanoi University of Agriculture and the Bristol Research Institute of Agriculture to discuss necessary agricultural technologies and to develop relevant training courses that include waste processing, the use of biogas and other technologies.

Akademi Teknik Mesin dan Industri (ATMI), a polytechnic-level institution that provides vocational training, built the first energy–saving and environmentally friendly educational building in Indonesian TVET by adopting green building design, construction and operation. The ATMI has also bolstered sustainable innovation by promoting green technology development through setting up graduates’ start–ups. This serves as an excellent example to illustrate how this institution devoted significant resources and time for greening TVET despite the difficulties encountered combined with a lack of expertise in the region (they were unable to identify a local architectural firm capable of designing a green building).

In Sri Lanka, the Don Bosco Technical Centre adopts a holistic approach towards greening by using alternative energy sources, conserving energy, managing waste, greening the campus and providing social support to local communities. The centre houses a biogas unit that produced methane gas from the pig dung. They use leftovers from the canteen to feed their pigs and the dung becomes a renewable resource for biogas generation, which is used for cooking in the canteen and for running the energy generator. This process is considered highly cost-effective, profitable and environmentally friendly as it utilises the dung as an energy source for the centre. Don Bosco also recycles scrap metal and timber in the form of decorations. In the area of social responsibility, the centre had begun experimenting with producing their own solar cells and LEDs that they planned to sell at the market at a cheaper price. In classes, students discuss environmental issues and the centre funds a teacher to be trained in waste water and energy efficiency.

Although the importance of VTPs’ initiatives should not be underestimated, government initiatives have been identified by the regional UNESCO–UNEVOC study as the major drivers behind greening in the construction and agriculture sectors. In Figure 2, the first response for each driver is from construction and the second is from agriculture.

Figure 2: The main reasons for greening skills in TVET programs in construction and agriculture

These results indicate that the role of the government in greening skills in the TVET curriculum is particularly powerful. Around 90 percent of respondents strongly agree, or agree, that government initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy, in establishing environmental legislation and in greening training standards have influenced the greening of TVET programs in both agriculture and construction. Government initiatives in supporting the development of training programs and courses had a stronger push in agriculture than construction.

However, despite the similarities, additional drivers play a significant role in some countries. A comparison between Malaysia and the Philippines in the agricultural sector (Figure 3) revealed significant differences that will in turn lead to different challenges in terms of the implementation of greening skills. For example, sector/occupation regulations, and changes and international training standards, do not influence Malaysia to the same extent as the Philippines. However, initiatives by TVET institutions, environmental legislation and government initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy have a strong influence in Malaysia but not in the Philippines.

Figure 3: The inclusion of green skills in the curriculum: country specific challenges

This information can be used to plan further TVET greening by “adding” additional drivers and strengthening existing ones.

The same survey also asked teachers how the green restructuring of the labour market and changes in occupational profiles had influenced their programs. For construction, survey participants identified “emergency of new occupations” and “alternation of occupation process/methods” as the major drivers behind the greening of their programs and courses. Fewer respondents agreed that the “elimination of existing jobs” had motivated changes in their programs and courses over the last two years (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Influence of green restructuring of the labour market and changes in occupational profiles – construction

A closer examination across the countries (data for China was missing for these questions), revealed that – unlike the Philippines and Sri Lanka – Malaysia strongly considered the potential elimination of existing jobs and alteration of occupational process/methods to be their drivers for including green skills. More than 20 percent of the respondents from Sri Lanka strongly disagree with these two statements and this may be indicative of the slow pace of the greening of their economy (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Country specific responses to the elimination of existing jobs and alteration of processes in construction

TVET respondents from agriculture believe that “alteration of occupation process/methods” was the main reason for greening TVET programs and around 40 percent disagree that the “elimination of existing jobs” was the reason. There is a 100 percent agreement from Malaysian respondents that “alteration of occupation process/methods” is the reason for greening (Figure 6). This information demonstrated that for agriculture, alteration of occupational processes and methods is more significant than for construction.

Figure 6: Influence of green restructuring of the labour market and changes in occupational profiles – agriculture

Another important factor that supports greening in TVET is collaboration with external bodies. Construction industry TVET collaborates closely with industry associations, professional associations and, to a lesser extent, with private enterprises to include greening skills (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Collaboration with external bodies in construction

Collaboration in agriculture has a different profile whereby the majority of TVET providers (83 percent) collaborate directly with private enterprises and only 17 percent with industry associations.

All institutions, regardless of sector, are involved in collaboration which highlights the crucial role of external partnerships for greening programs. This importance is also reflected in responses to the ways in which green skills are included in TVET programs. More than 80 percent of teachers, in both agriculture and construction, agree that green skills are mainly learnt through industry placement.

Additional means by which major drivers for greening can be identified is through an analysis of the barriers that inhibit green skills inclusion. For both sectors, barriers at the national level, such as lacking an assessment mechanism to certify environmental skills in existing qualification standards and the absence of certification combined with a low demand for green skills hampered green skills inclusion. Additional barriers at the institutional level, such as the non-inclusion of green skills in the curriculum, the need for professional development and a lack of initiative from administration to develop green attitudes among staff were identified in the construction sector. At the personal level, a lack of teaching time to teach green skills was also highlighted as a significant factor. Moreover, from the TVET perspective, the demand for green skills in these two industries was not apparent. Only 30 percent of respondents agree, or strongly agree, that the demand is there. Therefore, the greening of industry that will articulate a demand for TVET could be viewed as an important driver for greening TVET.

At the national level in the agricultural sector, around 60 percent of the interviewees identified the lack of means to certify environmental skills to existing qualification standards as a barrier. Other barriers included the absence of assessment mechanisms and little demand for the teaching of green skills. At the personal level, the demand for teaching resources was highlighted. An example of teachers’ responses in construction is presented in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Figure 8: Barriers inhibiting the introduction of green skills in construction

Therefore, among the major drivers behind the greening of TVET programs, as perceived by TVET institutions government initiatives in particular play a crucial role. Governments’ initiatives in establishing green targets for the economy, and in setting up environmental legislation and in greening training standards are of particular importance. In order to address environmental legislation that influences the inclusion of new modules or programs as well as the rules and regulations in industry sectors, TVET institutions closely collaborate with industry. In addition, changes in the labour market such as the elimination of some jobs, the emergence of new occupations and the alteration of existing processes and methods are considered by TVET providers to be the drivers for change, whereas the alteration of existing processes and methods provides a stronger push in agriculture.

4 Requirements for systematic reform

In addition to the TVET perspective on drivers behind greening TVET curriculum (analysed in the section above), a systematic review conducted by the author through a number of studies in the region identified five central dimensions that should be addressed at the macro level to ensure greening of TVET. They are summarised in Figure 9. Direct government support at the level of policy coordination and TVET reform is identified as one of five enabling factors. In addition, the governments’ role in stimulating and supporting all other dimensions such as industry greening; direct influence on TVET curriculum development; stimulation of stakeholders’ active involvement; and awareness raising amongst the whole population is crucial. Some examples from Vietnam are used in this section.

Table 2: Five dimensions of TVET greening (Pavlova 2015)

4.1 Awareness

In addition to raising the general awareness about environmental issues in populations as a whole, awareness and capacity development of TVET stakeholders is required in many countries. To achieve change in greening development agents of change are required at all levels: people across society should be involved in communication/education processes relevant to green growth and green skills development. Considering that every job can become greener, environmental aspects need to be included in many aspects of social life, not just in training for newly emerging occupations. Capacity building at the ministerial level, as well as at the level of states/ provinces, is required for stakeholders who are involved in skills development policy formulation and implementation strategies. In these programs general principles of greening economies and skills requirements should be highlighted with examples from different industries.

4.2 Government support

Governments play an important role in TVET developments in the region. For many developing countries, current changes in TVET relate to expanding the traditional TVET system and its mainstreaming. There is a need to define appropriate measures to formulate a skills response by improving the effectiveness of overall training and its links with industry.

In the long run, changes in training systems towards greening need to be channelled through existing system-based, established mechanisms. In countries where the TVET system is responsive to the changing needs of the labour market, changing skill needs in existing occupations has led to the creation of initial or continuous training responses; however, this mechanism does not exist in some countries. In Vietnam, for example, the system does not have a strong tradition of updating TVET curricula in response to labour market demands. Individual institutions adjust their training programs to meet current needs but there are no comprehensive approaches for skills forecasting. From this perspective there are no established pathways for narrowing the skills gap, and as a result for including green skills in education and training programs.

The majority of providers follow government initiatives; therefore governments need to continue their direct involvement in training provision to increase its internal quality as well as its external relevance. As a consequence, ongoing TVET reform and the greening of skills need to be linked. Incentives for private providers to deliver high-quality training programs should include a requirement for green skills development.

Governments need to develop a policy framework for the introduction of green skills in TVET now to reduce the time lag that usually occurs when a demand from industry is detected but programs are not there to meet this demand. One of the strategies that can provide immediate results is to use existing initiatives in skills development to introduce green skills. For example, the Vocational Training for Rural Workers up to 2020 Program (started in 2009) could be used to provide green training in Vietnam and the government could include this requirement for project applications.

4.3 Curriculum

Countries where TVET providers have some flexibility (usually around 30 percent) in curriculum development have better opportunities to respond rapidly to the needs of industry in terms of the greening of technologies or adjustments in production/service provision. These institutions could review their courses following delivery and include new (green) components required by industry.The attitudes of TVET providers’ principals are crucial for the development of institutions. When government TVET providers feel empowered and are expected to be proactive by “the system”, and if they understand the importance of change relevant to green growth, they can put additional measures in place to ensure green skills are included in the curriculum.

Green growth depends on greening all jobs. In developing approaches towards the inclusion of green skills in the TVET curriculum, several issues need to be addressed:

• The inclusion of generic green skills that combine environmental awareness and general understanding of greening with process-based generic green skills, such as monitoring and managing waste, energy, water , material use, impact minimisation and assessment.
• Greening of study programs should include both generic modules (to understand the principles and main ideas) and specific, occupation-related courses that are target technical skills development in particular areas.
• Development of teaching materials for generic modules could be based on existing materials produced by some institutes (e.g. Hanoi University of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam).
• Two learning models can be considered: the diffusion model that includes issues relevant to greening from the perspectives of different green industries into a study program to enhance the interdisciplinarity of learning, and the infusion model that provides training in greening processes specific to occupations.
• Adjust green skills development strategies towards different levels of skills development. Research by the author demonstrates that changes in existing occupations need to occur at all skill levels. Often, the main challenge is to introduce green skills at the low- and middle-skill levels, as currently there are limited mechanisms for achieving this. Often high skills (from the level of Bachelor’s degree and up) have been introduced in different programs.
• A forward-looking approach is required as it takes time to develop skills (particularly at the higher levels).

In addition, government bodies that oversee standards development (e.g. the National Skills Standards Development Committee in Vietnam that undertakes tasks and skills analysis to formulate skills standards) could facilitate the introduction of green skills into skills standards.

Workplace learning plays a crucial role in introducing green skills, and is comprised of a diverse set of practices, ranging from brief periods when the learner observes a workplace during visits to structured internships and long–term apprenticeships that lead to qualifications. Targeted approaches to workplace learning are required to ensure that green operations and processes are a part of these practices. Greening of training provision for low- and medium-skilled occupations are more likely to take place on the job (occupational changes are, and probably stay, mainly related to the introduction of new technologies, environmental protection policies and legislations, as well as changes in management practice) and will have a very practical focus (compared to high–skills often delivered through higher education).

4.4 Greening of industries

The identification of measures for greening the economy was not a focus of this article; however, it is important to make a number of observations in relation to entrepreneurship. Accelerating entrepreneurship is essential for large–scale employment generation. Even for countries that are better positioned in terms of formal sector employment growth (e.g. Vietnam had 4.1 percent employment growth in the formal sector over the period 2009–2011) (UN 2012), large businesses (both public and private) have not generated enough employment in the past few decades and are unlikely to do so in the near future due to planned increases in productivity. Therefore, entrepreneurship has the potential to significantly contribute to issues relevant to clean energy, waste management, green agriculture and others. However, in order to stimulate entrepreneurial growth conditions, a supportive government and regulatory environment, adequate capital flows (both debt and equity), support from businesses and society, as well as the availability of appropriate talent and mentoring are required. The government should consider supporting small– and medium–sized enterprises to participate in knowledge networks and skills development that will lead to innovation or the adaptation of green innovation.

However, new technologies must not be expensive. As stated by the Vietnam Academy of Social Science (an interview with the author), a successful 10-year pilot project aimed at reducing chemicals in textile production collapsed due to the cost associated with new technologies. In this instance everyone involved in the project reverted to using old technologies. Similarly, solar and wind power production is not competitive compared to traditional methods.

For the informal economy, jobs should become greener to facilitate the development of green skills as for low– and medium–skilled occupations skills training are more likely to take place at the workplace.

An effective labour market information system is an essential component for increasing the effectiveness of skills development planning; however, additional means for detecting new needs associated with the implementation of green strategies and the transition to a low–carbon, greener economy should be developed. There is a requirement to develop a uniform statistical definition of green jobs to enable the measuring of skills required for them. Currently, ad hoc studies conducted by individual institutions that are one–off initiatives, provide limited information relevant to particular provinces or communities. Information provided at the sector–specific level is essential.

4.5 Involvement of different stakeholders

A lot has been written about the importance of TVET stakeholders’ participation in curriculum development as well as their support of training programs. The same applies to greening TVET. To improve the quality of TVET, key stakeholders need to be engaged and employers in particular, so they are able to explain skills requirements and provision. In addition, there is a need to train workplace instructors in pedagogy. Adequate incentives for employers to become actively involved in different aspects of training are required.

5 Conclusion

A strong policy commitment towards green growth in the region is evident in government policies and action plans; however, the implications of these strategies in a skills development context have not been rigorously addressed. This is particularly evident in the absence of assessment and certification mechanisms and in the lack of demand for green skills. Demand for green skills is mainly influenced by government regulations, incentive schemes and other initiatives. TVET providers are trying to maintain close links with industry in order to adjust their courses to meet current demand; however, they are not so active in anticipating future skills demand. Therefore, if we are to ensure that existing occupations become greener and that green jobs creation is scaled up a great deal of political support and commitment is required. This includes the development of regulatory and institutional frameworks; financial, technical and intellectual investment; mapping skills requirements against TVET training and retraining provisions; and the support of multi public/private and community sector partnerships.

Governments have a particularly important role to play in the following three aspects:

• To bridge the gap between TVET outcomes and jobs requirements, so when the greening of the economy speeds up, TVET will be ready to respond with well-established mechanisms. TVET responses can establish effective ways to meet the changing needs of the labour market.
• In anticipating the greening of the economy and in meeting the social demand to address environmental and social issues, TVETs need to be proactive in awareness raising and developing generic green skills in two categories (general awareness and common greening processes).
• Formulate measures for greening the economy through the development of green industries and developing green practices in all industries (to formulate green skills demand).

The attitude “growth first and greening later” does not work (WB, 2012); therefore economic and social development should go hand–in–hand with greening. Although skills development required for green growth presents a challenge for governments worldwide, the government’s role; however, is pivotal to ensuring that the future workforce can address the challenges of green growth (including environmental, social and economic aspects), to interpreting environmental legislation, to increasing energy and resource efficiency if they are to enable the processes involved in greening the economy.

As this article focuses on formal TVET, the role of NGOs as well as informal and non-formal learning has not been addressed. However, the informal sector plays a very significant role in the region and additional studies are required to identify this sector’s greening drivers.

Acknowledgements

This article used results of the project “Green Skills – Top up approaches: How TVET Institutions are responding in Asia and the Pacific region” (2015) supported by the UNESCO-UNEVOC International Centre, Bonn where the author was a research consultant. The article is also reflected on findings of the ADB project on Education and Skills for Inclusive Growth and Green Jobs (2012–2014) where the author was a research consultant.

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Citation

Pavlova, M. (2016). Regional overview: What is the government’s role in greening TVET? In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-18. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/pavlova_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016).

This paper has two starting points. First is the recently approved document, Implementation plan of vocational education reform issued by the General Office of the State Council of China (2019). One aspect of this reform is specifically related to the quality of TVET teachers. It requires the TVET sector to develop a unified approach towards selecting and educating TVET teachers at the national level. The second is China’s resolve to follow a path of sustainable development (Zhang & Wen 2008). The government emphasizes the need to reduce environmental pollution and develop innovative approaches towards minimizing the use of energy and materials in all economic sectors and to establish step-by-step measures to implement these approaches (Tianbao & Fang 2018). As a result of these two developments, TVET teachers need to incorporate the knowledge and skills required for education for sustainable development (ESD) into their classroom/workshop practice that are relevant to their own specific specializations (Zhang et al. 2017). However, this creates significant challenges in terms of teacher training, as there is a lack of discussion about how to motivate teachers to address SD issues and to apply what they know about ESD into their teaching practices (Borg, Gericke, Höglund, & Bergman, 2012).  This article argues that career identity theories provide principles that can be used to design teacher education and training programs to cultivate teachers’ motivation and commitment to ESD. The authors put forward a model that consists of six components, which can be included in educational programs for TVET teacher s with the specific aim of implementing ESD in TVET.

Keywords: TVET teachers’ career identity, teacher education, education for sustainable development

1          Background

This paper has two starting points. First is the recently approved document, Implementation plan of vocational education reform issued by the General Office of the State Council of China (2019). The reform requires the TVET sector to develop a unified approach for selecting and educating TVET teachers at the national level. The second is China’s resolve to follow a path of sustainable development (Zhang & Wen, 2008). There is a need for all employees to recognise the importance of greening operational practices and to perform tasks related to that. In this context, there is also a requirement to develop a systematic approach towards the inclusion of education for sustainable development (ESD) in TVET and TVET teacher education and training programs.

1.1         China endeavors to improve the quality of TVET

A recent influential event that signaled China’s resolve to improve the quality of TVET was the issue of the Implementation Plan of Vocational Education Reform in February 2019 by the General Office of the State Council of China. According to the plan, China will endeavor to elevate TVET teachers’ qualification requirements and to strengthen TVET teacher training programs. In particular, China aims to establish 100 new TVET teacher education and training institutions, to introduce the requirement for all TVET teachers to attend field practicums for at least one month per year, and to undertake compulsory training and professional development courses every five years. Excellent teachers will participate in scholarly exchange projects across countries in order to connect China’s TVET with the world, as well as to facilitate innovations in TVET teaching. In October 2019, China issued an additional implementation plan targeted at recruiting and educating “double-master” TVET teachers – that is, teachers who are proficient at teaching theory and practice in a certain specialty simultaneously (Teacher No. 6 [2019]). The document clearly stated, following German’s Dual System Vocational Model, that from 2020 the government demands that all TVET institutions stop recruiting teachers who have no industry experience. Thus, TVET teacher training and education institutions are required to offer compulsory practicums at enterprises related to their specializations. Following graduation, only those who are double-master TVET teachers will be permitted to work as TVET teachers.

Currently, China has more than 300 training and education institutions involved in providing TVET teacher education and training. Two thirds of these train both pre-service and in-service TVET teachers at the higher education level (Zhao & Lu, 2007). Compared to college disciplines, which are organized and taught according to definitions of national classifications and a code of disciplines for training and education, TVET teachers’ specializations are set up by TVET teacher training and education institutions, as there is a little guidance regarding the classification of TVET teaching specializations (Zhao & Lu, 2007; Shi, 2012). As a result, TVET also lacks a unified approach towards selecting and educating TVET pre-service or in-service teachers with real-life industry experience in a certain domain, as well as knowledge of teaching (Zhao & Lu, 2007; Shi, 2012). 

Therefore, there are a number of issues that should be addressed at the system level in terms of unifying approaches related to teaching TVET teachers, and developing the curriculum for different domains that match a classification for TVET teachers’ specializations (these classifications also need to be established). All these structural changes are aimed at improving the quality of TVET to meet the demands of the economy, and the important direction for economic development in China is the path towards sustainable development.

1.2         China’s resolve to work towards sustainable development

China adopted sustainable development (SD) as a national development strategy in 1996 (Zhang & Wen, 2008). Over the following two decades, the government of China has initiated a series of policies and actions to integrate SD into the government evaluation system and guide the development of green economic growth and industrial development. In 2016, China published its own domestic environmental governance norms for the implementation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and 43 government departments have been involved in implementing the country’s Sustainable Development Agenda (Tianbao & Fang, 2018). According to the document, all economic sectors are required to adopt environmentally friendly technologies and processes and to apply strengthened waste disposal criteria for their operations. The emergence of the green economy agenda within the framework of SD makes additional demands on the composition of employability skills and requires TVET teachers to be knowledgeable about sustainable development education and to possess the competencies to include ESD in their classroom practice (Pavlova & Huang, 2013; Majumdar, 2011).  

In terms of ESD education within TVET itself, teacher education and training now has multiple challenges. In relation to the above two points (TVET reform and SD strategies), TVET teacher training and education in China need to prepare TVET teachers so they have real-life SD knowledge and skills applicable to a particular specialization. Furthermore, they need to be motivated to include SD education in their classroom practices. Both of these require teachers to be prepared to engage in life-long SD learning and channel the most practical and up-to-date SD knowledge and skills to students instead of repeating text book content. What is an effective way of updating teachers’ specialist knowledge and skills, particularly in rapidly changing areas, such as green innovation? As industries keep changing, TVET teachers’ knowledge and skills become outdated quickly. Therefore, the best way to prepare TVET teachers for including ESD in their classroom practice is to ensure that they become self-directed learners. One of the effective ways to achieve this is through regular industry/teacher engagements so they are able to observe greening initiatives in practice or to introduce real-life scenarios into classroom settings.

Although engaging teachers in life-long learning and facilitating teacher’s agency are hot topics in the domain of TVET teacher’s professional development and career development (Guthrie, 2010), there are not many studies that focus specifically on designing TVET teacher education and training programs for the purposes of ESD implementation. Some studies suggest that the effectiveness of ESD implementation depends largely on the motivation and experience/knowledge of teachers on SD issues (see Pavlova and Chen, this issue). Therefore, this paper focuses on the way TVET teacher training programs can achieve these objectives by developing motivation with respect to a particular career behavior related to ESD implementation. Both the Constructive Theory of Career Development (Savickas, 2001) and Career Exploration Theory (Blustein & Flum, 1999; Flum & Blustein, 2000) frameworks emphasize the key role of career identity development for establishing life-long learning as well as voluntary engagement in certain career behaviors. This article proposes an educational model that consists of six components to support the introduction of ESD by TVET teachers.

2          Theories of career identity development and their implications for training TVET teachers towards ESD inclusion

The development of career identity and a sense of commitment to one’s job, is a process that has attracted increased attention in the field of career development (Meijers & Lengelle, 2012). Technological advances are among the major contributors towards this current focus. The adoption of new technologies brings rapid changes to the work environment and job specifications, so employees have to become life-long learners and adapt to changing work requirements quickly if they would like to maintain a competitive advantage (Savickas, 2001; Blustein & Flum, 1999; Flum & Blustein, 2000). According to Career Exploration Theory (Blustein & Flum, 1999; Flum & Blustein, 2000) and Constructive Theory of Career Development (Savickas, 2001) the development of career identity is the key to preparing employees to become life-long learners so they are able to adapt to changes quickly.

Career Exploration Theory (Blustein & Flum, 1999; Flum & Blustein, 2000) considers the development of career identity to be the outcome of one’s adaptation to external requirements through mutual interaction between oneself and the environment. Initially, individual behaviors are regulated by external requirements. Voluntary behaviors are established as soon as external requirements are internalized and integrated into one’s own belief and value system. Therefore, to develop a particular career-related identity, there is a need to identify these initial external requirements (such as those set up by an educational reform or SD goals), and then facilitate the internalization of these by relating them to a person’s own beliefs and values about their career. Finally, encouraging mutual interactions will serve to strengthen the relation.  

Constructive Theory of Career Development assumes that career identity develops through one’s attempts to relate one’s own values with the outside world of work (Savickas, 2001). As long as a person can establish a set of career-related life stories to guide, regulate, and sustain vocational behaviors, these stories will in turn help them to adapt to changes and evaluate those changes through continuous interaction with the world of work. If we are to apply this idea to designing TVET teacher education and training programs, an overall approach would be to accept people as the experts in their own lives and encourage them to seek meaning related to certain career behaviors, such as life-long learning or inclusion of SD concerns, through their personal experience. By constructing and reconstructing their own narrative stories, the wanted career behaviors are established.

Based on these theories, we are suggesting a training model that will prepare TVET teachers to include ESD education in their practice. The model is based on three steps identified following an analysis of Career Exploration Theory. Step 1, identify external requirements for the inclusion of ESD in TVET; step 2, design training modules that prepare teachers to meet these requirements (content); step 3, include activities that enable teachers examining the meaning of ESD education by referring to their own life experience and understanding about SD  to possible ESD approaches in TVET (focus on motivation). Based on key points from Constructive Theory of Career Development, we propose to adopt a teaching pedagogy that encourages TVET teachers to formulate multiple narrative stories regarding a list of SD themes in order to establish teachers’ commitment to ESD teaching.

In the next section, we present a training model based on the above framework.

3          A training model for preparing TVET teachers for ESD

Teachers need to develop a capacity to provide quality SD education through TVET. Therefore, effective teacher training should include a number of features that will help to address ESD in TVET classroom practice. Goodine (2010) suggested including three elements in order to prepare TVET teachers for sustainable development education. These elements are: i) knowledge and communications regarding conflicting information about clean and green technologies, ii) technical skills in teachers’ fields of specializations and an ability to identify training solutions and maintain networks and application of standards, and iii) generic skills that are required regardless of teachers’ field of expertise. Majumdar (2011) and Pavlova & Chen (2019) suggested that teachers should be trained using innovative principles of ESD pedagogy, such as a real-life problem-oriented and project-based approach and the use of virtual reality to bring real-life contexts into the classroom. Pavlova (Pavlova, 2016, Pavlova & Huang, 2013) emphasized the importance of teachers being able to collaborate with industries to understand greening needs and practices and develop an awareness of sustainable values. We argue that to achieve the above requirements, the training model for TVET teachers should emphasize teachers’ agency in SD education. Advances in modern education suggest that a teacher’s role as a knowledge transferer is not so important anymore in a modern classroom, therefore a teacher’s role as a learning facilitator should be strengthened (Biesta, Priestley, & Robinson, 2015; Pavlova & Chen, this issue). As facilitators, teachers need to be more creative and remain open to new knowledge and technology, varied students experiences, as well as learning practices that differ from their own previous learning experience or which simply just did not exist before. Furthermore, they need to respond more frequently to individual learning needs when the focus of the education process shifts from teaching to learning in, and outside, the classroom. All these elements require teachers to become life-long learners and agentic educators (Avalos, 2011; Biesta, Priestley, & Robinson, 2015).

In summary, a training model, which aims to prepare TVET teacher towards ESD education, should be designed to achieve the following goals:

• SD knowledge and practices in general;
• SD knowledge and practices in specific industries;
• generic green skills;
• ability to connect students with industry practices regarding SD;
• ability to adopt project-based pedagogies;
• develop life-long learning motivation; and
• develop agency to become an agentic educator.

To achieve these goals, the following six training focuses/components are put forward as prerequisites to support professional identity development among Chinese TVET pre-service and in-service teachers, as ESD implementators. They are: SD education in TVET, SD issues in teachers’ own specializations, teachers’ personal SD concerns, ESD curriculum development, ESD project development for practicum courses, and resources and self-learning plans. All six components are related to different aspects of ESD and career identity related activities. These components can, of course, be modified and extended to address the requirements of specific contexts.

3.1         SD education in TVET 

This component addresses general topics, such as defining SD and ESD, why ESD education should be included in TVET, and what the roles are for TVET teachers in ESD education. In addition, teachers are expected to correlate SD topics with their personal experiences by evaluating the competencies required by external requirements with their existing competencies and experiences. For example, teachers can be asked to complete a self-reporting worksheet before and after classes, which will foster an increased awareness of the gap between external requirements (e.g. targets under SDGs in China) and their own understanding of SD teaching in TVET, as well as their roles in terms of ESD. They can also participate in discussions in class that will help teachers identify existing gaps and devise possible measures for closing those gaps. 

3.2         SD issues in TVET teachers’ own specializations 

This component addresses SD issues related to teacher’s study major in order to prepare teachers with ESD knowledge and skills in that specialist area. The component also helps teachers identify their knowledge gaps regarding advances and conflicts in people’s understanding of clean and green practices and skills, as well as becoming familiar with the most up-to-date SD practices emerging in industries related to their specialization. The purpose of this component is for teachers to develop a sense of confidence and positive expectations about the outcomes of ESD. In order to achieve these goals, a checklist can be used in each class to help scrutinize their knowledge about ESD, as well as their beliefs and values related to ESD education. The classes should also have teachers propose their own solutions or teaching plan regarding existing SD problems in real-life situations. An example of a possible learning activity in a lesson can be role play. After dividing into three groups of teachers, students, and corporate owners, teacher players are asked to prepare a teaching plan regarding an SD-related practical issue. Student players are asked to write down what they would like to learn in relation to this issue and then compare the teaching plan to their own ideas. Corporate owner players are asked to write down their concerns and evaluate the teaching plan along with the learning wish list prepared by the students. At the end of this process, all three groups should agree upon a teaching plan. By working through these process, all participants have a chance to examine teaching and learning approaches to addressing SD issues, to recognize different stakeholder perspectives, and to finalize a teaching plan.

3.3         Teachers’ personal SD concerns

The purpose of this component is to provide teachers with knowledge about TVET teaching pedagogy, to encourage teachers to explore SD issues they are concerned about and to relate these issues to ESD teaching. They will be required to share their own concerns and stories about these concerns, examine what happened before and after, as well as their feelings and responses. After discussing possible ESD practices with their classmates and knowledge related to their concerns, teachers are encouraged to develop a new story. This new story includes a part about their expectations as well as teaching efforts they could use in response to their personal SD concerns. This component is designed to follow a narrative pedagogy procedure.    

3.4         ESD curriculum development  

After first preparing teachers with SD knowledge and practices, as well as some ESD principles, this component and the next are focused on ESD curriculum development. Teachers need to learn how to integrate generic green skills development (Pavlova, 2019) throughout all the courses in their program and how they could integrate specific green skills and knowledge relevant to their specialization. A real SD issue can be used as a starting point. Teachers can analyze problems related to teaching about this issue, discuss the content and possible suitable pedagogies suitable. Teachers can take part in workshops about curriculum design and project development. Teamwork is encouraged to help teachers to establish a supportive network. 

3.5         ESD project development for practicum

Like the previous component, this one focuses on the development of ESD projects for practicum courses. Teachers need to identify which projects are appropriate in a workplace context and work out how to formulate activities that can help students learn about issues such as minimization of water use, electricity, resource use, waste and water management and other issues that are closely related to technological generic green skills (Pavlova, 2018).

3.6         Resources and self-learning plan 

The focus of this component is to further improve teacher’s commitment to ESD teaching, engage them in life-long learning of ESD knowledge and practice, and establish their provision of ESD teaching. Based on their own views, teachers are encouraged to identify the significance of ESD teaching for their careers, their own lives, the lives of students, and wider society.  In terms of teaching, they can pinpoint expected difficulties and devise corresponding strategies. In terms of future development, they are expected to identify useful resources and develop their own self-learning plans.  

These six components work together to facilitate the development of TVET teachers’ commitment to ESD education. At the same time, each of the components can be picked up and developed into an independent module for training teachers about ESD education.

4          Summary

The inclusion of ESD in TVET to address SD strategies in Chinese development plans, presents multiple challenges. One of them is the introduction of ESD in TVET teacher education and training. With the purpose of developing an educational model that is effective for training TVET teacher for SD education, the paper identified the need to develop the career identities of TVET teachers so they meet the external requirements related to China’s SD development plans. Based on Constructive Career Theory and Career Exploration Theory, the paper proposed that teachers’ commitment to SD education should be the main objective of the educational model and a narrative pedagogy should be adopted in teaching. A three-step procedure was established to develop this model. Each of the six components of the model has a specific focus, and some examples have been included to illustrate the nature of each component. The inclusion of these components in training programs will help prepare TVET teachers with real-life SD knowledge and skills applicable to their particular specializations, and will motivate them to include SD education in their classroom practices. The model also highlights the need for TVET educators to become life-long learners and agentic educators if they are to maintain effective engagement in ESD that is relevant to their SD concerns alongside the constant changes taking place in greening industry practices.

The suggested model was developed based on career identity theories and results of studies conducted in the area by other researchers. Therefore, empirical studies are required to measure the effectiveness of this approach and to formulate practice-proven recommendations for each component that will support TVET teachers’ implementation of ESD. Another important point to consider is the importance of those external requirements that should be internalized in order for ESD to be implemented in TVET. The context for the implementation of the suggested educational model is China; the government is very supportive of training TVET teachers and in addressing SD issues. As the formulation of external requirements regarding ESD in TVET is very context specific, there is a need for countries with different external requirements from China to modify and adopt this model in that different context.

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Citation

Kang, R. & Pavlova, M. (2013). Development of TVET Teachers’ Career Identity through Teacher Education and Training Programs for the purposes of including ESD in Classroom Practices. In: TVET@Asia, issue 14, 1-11. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue14/kang_etal (retrieved 30.12.2019).

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) plays a significant role in supporting green economic restructuring as well as tackling environmental problems through skills development. Generic green skills play an important role among required skills, as they are necessary for all occupations to ensure environmental friendly workplace practices, and as a consequence they should be addressed in the TVET curriculum.The pedagogy needed to facilitate the development of these green skills is an emerging research area worldwide. 

This paper considers pedagogy for education for sustainable development (ESD) as a broad framework that can enhance the development of generic green skills. It examines current theories and a selection of practices related to ESD pedagogy and analyses pedagogical approaches commonly used in ESD curricula.  It also reports on the results of a pilot study that revealed a significant gap between the pedagogical approaches put forward in the literature and ESD pedagogical practices within the context of TVET. 

Based on ESD pedagogy analyses and the results of the pilot study, this paper puts forward a pedagogical model designed to support generic green skills development. It suggests a problem-oriented and project-based pedagogical framework that brings real-world learning opportunities into the classroom as a pedagogical approach, which has the potential to enhance the development of students’ generic green skills.

Keywords: Green skills, Generic green skills, TVET, ESD pedagogy, real-world learning, locally relevant knowledge, problem-oriented learning, project-based learning; problem-oriented and project-based pedagogical framework

1 Introduction

During the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), technical and vocational education and training (TVET) started re-orienting its curriculum towards ESD. The final report on this UN Decade (UNESCO 2014) revealed actions around the world related to ESD inclusion such as TVET teacher training (China), reforming and innovating TVET curriculum (Kenya, China, Mauritius, Canada, Poland, Greece),
incorporating sustainable development into vocational qualifications (Finland), introducing policy to support green skills development (Australia, Republic of Korea, France) and developing a network to facilitate cooperation between TVET institutions (Peru). Adoption of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 strengthened the emphasis on the role of skills in addressing SD challenges, and included support for green economic restructuring. In relation to skills that are required, generic green skills are widely accepted as core competencies for almost any occupation (ILO 2011; OECD 2013; Pavlova 2017; 2018) and have been identified as having a significant impact on facilitating the future workforce’s understanding of issues related to green growth and as well as enhancing those skills required for more environmental friendly performance in the workplace.

In order to address the issue of generic green skills development, generic green modules/ environmental modules have been introduced into the TVET curriculum. For example, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in Vietnam introduced a compulsory 30-hour subject on climate change for all TVET institutions under MOET supervision (Pavlova 2017). Many vocational training providers (VTPs) also viewed industrial safety units that contain content on environmental awareness, hygiene and safety as a means to address generic green skills (ibid). A number of generic green modules have been introduced in Hong Kong that include environmental knowledge and reflection on green practices that are needed for greening the economy and society as a whole. Although positive processes for greening the TVET curriculum have been observed worldwide, many aspects of its effective implementation are still under-researched (Pavlova 2017). In particular, the effectiveness of implementing these learning modules in order to equip students with generic green skills/competencies has not been thoroughly examined.

The reorientation of the TVET curriculum so it includes generic green skills requires innovative pedagogy to facilitate the effective implementation of “greened” curricula. Traditional methods of academic instruction, such as lecture-driven delivery, has inadequately equipped students with the required competencies to make the transition from the classroom to real world problem solving (Steinemann, 2003; Seatter and Ceulemans, 2017). Moreover, TVET pedagogy, which has uncritically responded to industry demands (e.g. fueling productivity and efficiency) but has ignored unintended environmental and social consequences, and has therefore been criticized for failing to equip students with green skills (Anderson, 2009; Arenas and Londono, 2013, Bedi and Germein, 2016). Thus, a more innovative pedagogy that provides interactive, experiential and transformative learning as well as real-world problem solving opportunities to facilitate students’ generic green skills development should be applied. However, innovative pedagogies proposed in the literature for facilitating effective teaching and learning in TVET, such as work-based learning, authentic learning and campus-based learning have not been specifically designed to assist generic green skills development. There has hardly been any research that can provide empirical evidence regarding the nature of teaching and learning to help with generic green skills development in the context of TVET.

In addressing this issue, the paper suggests applying ESD pedagogy as a broad framework that can enhance the development of generic green skills through TVET programs. It outlines current theories and a selection of practices related to ESD pedagogy and reviews pedagogical approaches commonly used in ESD curricula to develop students’ key sustainability competencies. It also reports on the results of a pilot study based on classroom observations and interviews with TVET staff involved in teaching a generic green module at one TVET institution in Hong Kong. This study revealed a significant gap between the pedagogical approaches put forward in the literature and ESD pedagogical practices in the context of TVET. Therefore, the importance of developing a model that can present a theoretical understanding of how to approach the development of generic green skills is of a particular significance.

Grounded on ESD pedagogy analysis and the results of the pilot study, this paper outlines a pedagogical model designed to support generic green skills development. It puts forward a problem-oriented and project-based pedagogical framework that includes real-world learning opportunities as a pedagogical approach and which has the potential to enhance the implementation of generic green modules to expedite the development of students’ generic green skills. 

 2 Current Theories and Practices related to ESD Pedagogy

This section outlines the theory and practice related to ESD pedagogy. First, it conceptualizes the meaning of ESD pedagogy based on the understanding and characteristics of ESD. Following on from this, the section outlines the theory and part of the practice with regard to an ESD pedagogical approach and strategy.

2.1 The conceptualizatin of ESD pedagogy

Considering the diverse understanding of ESD and ESD pedagogy in literature, it is important to conceptualize the meaning of ESD pedagogy and outline some of its related practices.

Commonly, ESD is regarded as a particular way of linking education and sustainable development, although it is described and conceptualized in different ways according to the various interpretations of sustainable development and educational ideologies (Corney and Reid, 2007). From a teaching and learning perspective, ESD has been understood as an emerging paradigm that enables holistic, systemic, connective and ecological ways of thinking and learning (Sterling, 2002). Although there is no widely accepted definition of ESD pedagogy, many approaches are in accord about its specific characteristics. The ESD Sourcebook (Learning and Training Tools No.4, 2012) reveals that ESD pedagogies are 

“often place-based or problem/issue-based. ESD pedagogies encourage critical thinking, social critique, and analyses of local contexts. They involve discussion, analysis and application of values. ESD pedagogies often draw upon the arts using drama, play, music, design, and drawing to stimulate creativity and imagine alternative Futures”.

Although the majority of literature on ESD pedagogy has been focused on higher education (e.g. Brundiers, Wiek and Redman, 2010; Blake, Sterling and Goodson, 2013; Remington-Doucette et al., 2013), the results of studies in the literature can help conceptualize approaches relevant to TVET that can then be empirically tested. These identified studies revealed that ESD pedagogy promotes cooperation and collaboration, issues investigation, multiple perspectives and real-world problem solving (Laurie et al., 2016). For instance, the Burns Model of Sustainability Pedagogy (Burns, 2009; 2013) takes an integrated approach to examining complex sustainability issues through problem-based learning and collaborative group work that focus on inquiry, experience and reflection and which have a central focus on ecological design. Although many of the proposed ESD pedagogies, such as inquiry-based learning and case studies, have been in practice in different disciplinary traditions for years, they are now implemented in interdisciplinary contexts and applied to address sustainability issues, which do more on developing the acquisition of skills, perspective and values required for sustainable societies instead of facilitating learning of knowledge (Laurie et al., 2016).

Therefore, ESD pedagogy could be understood as diverse teaching and learning methods that can facilitate participation and collaboration, develop critical problem-solving abilities and stimulate innovation through a holistic and interdisciplinary approach, which is also value-driven and locally relevant. It could also make a contribution to developing students’ generic green skills, which could assist the future workforce to understand green growth issues and increase their environmental awareness.

2.2 ESD Pedagogical Approaches

 An increasing number of pedagogical approaches proposed in recent literature are related to traditional approaches, such as work-based learning (e.g. Finn 2017; Wall et al 2017); campus-based project learning (e.g. Lindstrom & Middlecamp 2017) or emerging hightech-based approaches such as game-based learning (e.g. Madani, Pierce & Mirchi 2017). All these approaches advocate teaching and learning through solving actual, real-world sustainability problems as an effective way of developing sustainability competencies (Rowe 2007; Brundiers, Wiek & Redman 2010; Remington-Doucette et al. 2013). Most of the ESD pedagogical frameworks that incorporate real-world problem solving opportunities use problem-based learning (PBL), project-based learning (PjBL) or the integration of PBL and PjBL (e.g. Brundiers, Wiek & Redman 2010). Therefore, the following review is focused on elaborating the theory and practice related to PBL, PjBL and the integrated models of PBL and PjBL. The intention is to formulate a theoretical framework for developing an ESD pedagogical model to facilitate the effective implementation of a generic green module to equip students with generic green skills.

2.2.1 Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is widely identified as an effective approach for ESD as it focuses on complex interdisciplinary problems, and provides students with the opportunity to gain experience in addressing complex problems they may face in their future careers (Steinemann 2003). It encourages students to work in a team and integrate theory with practice to figure out solutions to problems, which is assumed to be the aim of the PBL approach to professional education (Savery 2006).

The foundations of problem-based learning are firmly based on the work of researchers such as Dewey, Piaget, Bruner and Gagne. It incorporates the objectives of developing problem solving and self-directed learning abilities and supports motivation for learning (Barrows 1986).

2.2.2 Project-based learning 

Project-based learning (PjBL) is a form of situated learning, based on constructivism theory. This theory suggests that students gain a deeper understanding of the learning material when they actively construct their understanding by working with, and using, ideas in real-world contexts. (Krajcik & Shin 2014). PjBL, which interweaves knowledge application and project practice, can help students consolidate and broaden their understanding (Tempelman & Pilot 2011), and provide opportunities for students to develop the communication, problem-solving and team-working skills which will be needed in their future careers (Elshorbagy & Schönwetter 2002). Furthermore, when students perceive they are developing the professional skills required for their future careers, their learning motivation will be enhanced (Fang 2012). This kind of motivation can be sustained through meaningful, real-world problem solving and projects (Bell 2010).

A pan-European study, which compared sustainability subjects in technology universities, found that the most effective pedagogy for students to learn about sustainable development was a community-based project that involved collaboration between multiple learners as well as the use of a constructive-learning pedagogy (Jollands & Parthasarathy 2013). Another recent study also demonstrated that PjBL can effectively improve students’ generic green skills specifically in relation to project management, collaboration and communication proficiency (Ana, Sunarsih & Roheani 2015).

2.2.3 The Integrative models of PBL and PjBL

 ESD has increasingly focused on integrating problem- and project-based approaches to create more real-world learning opportunities for students to better understand and address sustainability challenges (Brundiers & Wiek 2013; Wiek et at. 2014; Kricsfalusy, Reed & George 2016). ESD has increasingly focused on integrating problem- and project-based approaches to create more real-world learning opportunities for students to better understand and address sustainability challenges (Brundiers & Wiek 2013; Wiek et at. 2014; Kricsfalusy, Reed & George 2016).

Brundiers and Wiek (2013, 1728) explained the aims for combining PjBL and PBL: first the combination of PBL and PjBL can avoid both the risk of “getting caught in the knowledge-first trap by endlessly analyzing problems” and of “jumping prematurely to solutions without sufficient problem framing and analysis”. Second, it can expand the engagement structure of PBL by involving stakeholders in a collaborative learning and critical reflection process instead of simply involving stakeholders who act as consultants (Brundiers & Wiek 2013). There are at least three approaches that have integrated PBL and PjBL that have been identified in the literature.

Problem- and Project-Based Learning (PPBL) approach

The problem- and project-based learning (PPBL) approach is based on constructivist and experiential learning, which specifically incorporates the approaches of PBL and PjBL (Wiek et al. 2014). It adopts the learning process of problem inquiry as in PBL to formulate solutions for problem solving through group projects. In these settings, learning shifts from passive to active, whereby students investigate a real-world problem and work on solutions/options by engaging in small-group work (Brundiers & Wiek 2013).

Since 2007, Arizona State University (ASU)’s School of Sustainability (hereafter SOS) as the first school in USA with credible undergraduate and graduate programs in sustainability, and has incorporated PPBL opportunities into learning and teaching practice (Brundiers, Wiek & Redman 2010; Redman & Wiek 2012; Brundiers & Wiek 2013). These PPBL activities provide students with unique settings that facilitate their professional capacity building by collaboratively identifying, analyzing and developing solutions/options to sustainability problems at local and international scales (Steinemann 2003; Thomas 2009; Wiek, Withycombe & Redman 2011; Yasin & Rahman 2011, Wiek et al. 2014). In 2010, a PPBL model (the ASU-SOS “functional and progressive” model) was proposed for building sustainability competence by effectively and structurally integrating real-world learning opportunities into the curriculum (Brundiers, Wiek & Redman 2010)

Problem Oriented Project-Based Learning approach

A similar approach proposed to address ESD has been problem oriented project-based learning (POPBL). Yasin and Rahman (2011, 3) indicate

“POPBL has to start with the analysis of a research problem followed by the design of the project to solve the problem through the implementation of the activity planned in order to solve the problem under study”.

It has been argued that project-based learning in subject-oriented curriculum and problem-oriented project work is crucially different (Kolmos, Fink & Krogh 2004; Olsen & Pedersen 2005; Yasin & Rahman 2011). In a normal subject-oriented projectbased curriculum, students’ work with the questions and themes that are decided by teachers, and teachers play the role of an expert to demonstrate “how students in a constructive way can relate curriculum and theories to praxis” (Nielsen & Danielsen 2012, 258). In this way, students are given, or chose, the topic to “learn”, rather than taking the responsibility of identifying the real-world problem they will work with. This kind of “PBL” ignores the notion that formulating a problem is the large part of the learning process in PBL (Yasin & Rahman 2011; Nielsen &. Danielsen 2012). The basic principles of POPBL can be summarized as:

• Student-centred and able to motivate and gain commitment among students
• Problem-oriented and not subject-oriented
• Focus is more on the learning process and finding solutions rather than knowledge recall − Project-based which involves goals and actions for change
• Exemplarity instead of generality
• Promotes group/team work, social and communication skills

Pavlova (2015) suggests that POPBL helps students to incorporate ethics in the decisionmaking process and enables reflection on the issues and proposed solutions, and from this perspective it should play a central role in developing pedagogical approaches to ESD. POPBL starts from the identification of an issue/problem and the development of specifications or criteria that the solution should address, and leads on to a formulation of several ideas; selection of the best solution and its further development; experimentation and evaluation; obtaining feedback from different stakeholders and subsequent improvements to the suggested solution. This process is not linear and requires reflection at each stage throughout the life of the project; it might take students back to the previous stages.

The POPBL approach, for example, has been used in an ESD program – “Life Sciences in Education”, which is the first ESD course for teacher education at the National University of Malaysia. The positive aspects of adopting POPBL in this program are by the students enjoying and learning a lot through community involvement and real life situations; they learn and apply the generic skills such as team and interpersonal communication in group project work, which further suggests that the POPBL approach is effective in developing students’ generic green skills (Yasin & Rahman 2011). The technology teacher training program at Griffith University (Pavlova 2009) used this approach for the final year students’ projects. They needed to pull together all the knowledge and understanding they had developed through the program to identify an issue, formulate a problem (brief) for the project and find a solution within the context of sustainable development.

Problem-Based and Project-Organized model

In summary, the combination of PBL and PjBL provides students with more opportunities to solve real world problems in order to foster developments of students’ sustainability competencies. The project work offers an opportunity for students to address a real-world problem and create changes in some way, while the problemoriented/based learning process facilitates learning through problem formulation and exploration. All integrative approaches/models emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary learning, self-directed learning, community involvement and real-world problem solving.

However, they have a slightly different emphasizes: the PPBL approach accentuates outside classroom settings; POPBL approach place more emphasis on problem formulation as an essential part of the learning process; and the Aalborg Model highlights the principle of interdisciplinarity so all learning activities are centered on problem solving and cross different programs. Although these models were developed and used mainly in higher education (Bachelor and Master Level) and were not specifically applied to the TVET context, they provide an important theoretical foundation for the development of an ESD pedagogical model for TVET.

2.3. The Identified ESD Pedagogical Strategies

This section reviews ESD pedagogical strategies, which are commonly used or suggested in the literature on ESD education. Analyses of ESD pedagogical strategies revealed the more common ones utilized in higher education. These include: Role plays and Simulations (to gain an in-depth understanding of another person’s perspective); Stimulus activities (e.g. watching a video or looking at photos, poems or newspaper extracts to initiate reflection or discussion); Debates (to encourage the development of arguments and counter-arguments on a topic); Critical incidents (to consider students’ personal perspectives and actions in relation to a moral or ethical stance – what they would do, could do and should do); Case studies (to develop a holistic view on an issue relevant to their context and to devise a solution); Reflexive accounts (to understand the effect of individual action on issues/solutions); Critical reading and writing (to understand possible motivations of the author and how the author might envisage alternative futures as a consequence ); Problem-based learning (to identify solutions based on investigation, developing a vision and plan of action); Fieldwork and outdoor learning (to link theory and real-world examples, promote active learning and develop an understanding of the complexity of sustainability); Modeling good practice (to demonstrate action-taking behavior such as reducing paper use, turning off lights at the end of the class) (Cotton & Winter 2010; Tilbury 2011).

In an attempt to further classify pedagogical strategies for ESD in higher education Lozano et al. (2017) selected twelve strategies either from well-cited ESD literature or ones that have been broadly adopted. These pedagogical strategies are non-exclusive, with some overlap in techniques and a clear potential to use two or more of the educational strategies synergistically:

• Universal: broadly applicable pedagogies that have been used in many disciplines and contexts (including case studies, interdisciplinary team teaching, lecturing, mind and concept maps, and project and/or problem-based learning);
• Community and social justice: pedagogies developed specifically for use in addressing social justice and community building (including community service learning, jigsaw/interlinked teams, participatory action research); and
• Environmental education: pedagogies emerging from environmental sciences and education practices (including eco-justice and community, place-based environmental education, supply chain/Life Cycle Analysis, and traditional ecological knowledge) (Lozano et al. 2017, 6-7)

In addition, Lozano et al. (2017) map the extent to which specific sustainability competencies can be developed by different ESD pedagogical strategies. Although this mapping is hypothetical, it provides a suitable approach for identifying strategies that contribute towards the most effective development of generic green skills.

In summary, the pedagogy approaches identified above could be used in different ESD learning contexts and could be applied depending on students’ characteristics, their previous learning experience about sustainability, the learning objectives for specific lessons, as well as the learning resources and space available for ESD education.

 3. Results of  the Pilot Study

These section introduces the aims and setting of the pilot study; it reveals the problems and challenges identified in the study and clarifies its implications in terms of developing the ESD pedagogical model put forward in this article.

3.1. Introduction of the Pilot Study

This small-scale study was conducted in one TVET institution in Hong Kong. It was designed to understand how students and teachers respond to a generic green enrichment module, and analyses included teachers’ pedagogical practice, students’ participation and the challenges encountered by both teachers and students in teaching and learning this module. In addition, the study sought to identify the learning and teaching settings for this module, such as teaching and learning resources, course content, teaching staff’ and students’ learning background. This generic green enrichment module addresses topics such as environmental concepts, sustainable development, environmental laws and regulations, pollution at the workplace, green office/workplace, climate change and carbon footprints.

Research methods for the pilot study included in-class observations and on-site conversations. Four in-class observations in two different classes were conducted. They covered three different topics from the module:

• Green office/workplace
• Climate change and carbon Footprint
• Sustainable development and corporate social responsibility

Four on-site conversations focused on teaching reflections with two teachers after every in-class observation, and one formal conversation with the team leader to better understand the module settings and to discuss the observations and teachers’ reflections. Attendance at the module team meeting also formed part of the data collection, in order to understand the module review plan and discuss identified issues with attendees. Observation notes and records of all conversations were taken during the two-month data collection process and these were subsequently analyzed. Recurring themes, patterns and issues were identified. The main two focuses of the analysis for this pilot study were the challenges and issues related to classroom practices during module implementation, as well as the level of students’ engagement.

 3.2. Identified Problems and challenges in teaching this green module

The challenges and problems related to teaching and learning this module identified in this study are discussed below. 

First, the lecture-based and content-centered pedagogical approach, which organized the lessons into one-way knowledge delivery and ignored students’ prior experience and learning needs, did not stimulate students’ participation and learning motivation. Most of the time, students played the role of passive information receivers as the teaching strategies did not provide them with opportunities to explore the real-world issues or exchange ideas and learning experiences. In addition, the content is based on a fixed teaching and learning package, which has little local relevance and is barely related to students’ different learning or working experiences. From this perspective this module does not address diverse learning needs and neither does it support students to make connections between knowledge acquisition and application.

Second, most of the teachers who delivered this module are primarily responsible for teaching other subjects, such as surveying. They did not specialize or were not familiar with generic green knowledge and practice as well as sustainability issues, which are complex and need to be considered in an interdisciplinary context. In addition, most of the students did not have any training or learning experiences related to sustainability issues. These factors posed a serious challenge for the teachers who were trying to facilitate a learning process whereby students’ could develop an understanding of sustainability issues and go on to generate solutions from different perspectives.

Third, although the assessment scheme included both continuous assessment and end-ofmodule assessment, some of the formats such as knowledge-based exams that require rote memorization may not be effective in evaluating students’ sustainability competencies or for measuring intended learning outcomes. These assessment formats barely encouraged students’ learning initiatives or explorations of real-world sustainability problems. The mini-project, as the end-of-module assessment, does not provide students with the opportunities to explore any real-world sustainability problems. In addition, the supervision and learning resources provided to students are not sufficient.

These specific challenges are not only experienced by this TVET institution in Hong Kong; they seem to be common issues in sustainability education. For instance, Remington-Doucette et al., (2013) identified the challenge for implementing a sustainability-related introductory course at a university as being related to

“students’ lack of basic knowledge, skills, and understanding of sustainability concepts and methodologies and a dearth of instructor capacity for coordination, supervision, and facilitation of a large number of real-world projects each semester.”

This situation resonates with the pilot study observations: lack of students’ knowledge related to sustainability and limited capacity of instructors for supporting students’ learning throughout sustainability projects.

3.3. The Implications of developing the ESD pedagogical mode

As a result of the pilot study, three essential aspects were identified that need to be incorporated in the ESD pedagogical model: teaching content, pedagogy and assessment.

 3.3.1. Teaching Content

First, there is a need to make full use of the campus resources to develop a curriculum so the campus can act as a living laboratory for sustainability education. For example, “how to deal with the waste management in the campus canteen” could be used as a practical question/case study for students to explore when they are learning the sustainability issues related to waste management. Moreover, the workplaces on campus that are used for practical training could be considered as real-world learning resources as well. For example, when exploring issues related to energy, students could visit the solar energy center on campus, and consider its advantages and disadvantages as well as how such systems work in different industries.

Second, it is essential to include students’ prior experience into the learning content as well as the learning processes. This has the potential to turn the perceived disadvantage of “students’ background are varied” to an advantage so different backgrounds become a stimulus for cross-disciplinary learning and initiate discussions from different perspectives. As generic green skills are the core competencies needed in almost any occupation, the content for the generic module should relate to students’ different learning fields and industrial practice as much as possible.

Third, the learning content should be reoriented to be more locally relevant in order to provide more real-world learning opportunities for students and to encourage them to address the sustainability issues existing in their local community. Thus, more local case studies and learning activities should be included in the learning content to stimulate student discussion.

3.3.2. Pedagogy

In terms of pedagogy, the following four features should be explicitly applied.

1) Constructing learning environments based on a learner-centered approach, and employing pedagogical strategies, which encourage student participation and stimulate their engagement with learning, such as

• Participatory/collaborative learning
• Problem-based learning
• E-learning technologies

2) Making connections between this generic module and students’ major subject areas through individualized learning or inquiry-based learning in small groups. For example, encouraging students to use specific cases related to their subjects to develop their understanding of a new concept or to illustrate how they would utilize an identified strategy to solve the environmental problems within their professional contexts.

3) Integrating characteristics of ESD into pedagogical practice. A value-driven principle could provide an example of this. Plastic bottle recycling is a very significant problem in Hong Kong, but it also has a serious impact on the environment of some developing countries such as the Philippines, as garbage from Hong Kong is directly dumped there. This is a value-driven ethical issue, which could be presented to students as a case study to help them understand why waste classification and recycling is important and to explore better ways of tackling this issue in the workplace.

4) Creating more learning resources for students by collaborating with experts from different industries and inviting them to share their experiences and understanding of sustainability, such as how they deal with environmental issues to support green economic restructuring.

3.3.3. Assessment

The following points are important to address when designing the assessment for the module.

1) Employing formative assessment to encourage greater class participation. Part of the assessment could be allocated to students’ presentations on a specific topic and group discussions on different aspects of sustainability.

2) A learning portfolio could be used for reporting on the project’s progress at least once a week, so teachers can provide more guidance based on students’ reflections. This would also mean the quality of the project learning could be maintained.

3) Evaluation of students’ learning outcomes should be based on a more systematic competency framework, which clearly specifies those generic green skills students are expected to have. In return, this may help teachers to design lessons and learning activities based on more clear learning objectives which are framed on a clear generic green skills Framework.

In summary, this pilot study helped formulate an approach towards building a pedagogical model that would increase the effectiveness of generic green skills learning as it identified problems and challenges that exist in relation to the teaching and learning of this module. Analysis of the literature data collected through the study helped suggest solutions that are applicable to specific educational settings within TVET in Hong Kong.

ESD pedagogical model: Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning Plus (POPBL+)

This section builds upon the POPBL model in order to facilitate the effective implementation of the generic green module to enhance students’ generic green skills development by bringing real-world learning opportunities into classrooms (+).

 4.1. Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning+ (POPBL+) Model

 The ESD pedagogical model – POPBL+ (see Figure 1) was developed based on the findings and reflections from the pilot study and the literature review.

The literature review has highlighted the significant importance of learning through realworld problem solving and generating solution options in order to increase students’ sustainability competencies. The identified ESD pedagogical models have a common focus on examining ways in which real-world learning opportunities can be included within a sustainability context and implementing ESD through real-world problem solving. However, the pilot study conducted in a TVET institution in Hong Kong indicated that it would be unrealistic to provide students with real-world learning opportunities in this particular green generic module.

<Thus, the suggested POPBL+ model was developed to create real-world learning opportunities by bringing the real-world sustainability issues into classroom/campus and helping students to connect these problems with their previous and current everyday life and work experiences. The model places more focus on learning through real-world problem solving instead of learning in a real-world setting. In this way, classroom learning acts as a bridge between real-world sustainability problems and students’ realworld learning and work experiences, and the process of knowledge acquisition shifts towards knowledge application by conducting projects in the context of real-world issues.

The POPBL⁺ model incorporates real-world learning opportunities into students’ learning through (adapted from Brundiers, Wiek and Redman, 2010), but these processes are not necessarily linear. The processes of “bringing the world in” and “stimulating the world” mainly prepare students with the necessary knowledge and skills to further explore real-world problems, while the processes of “visiting the world ” and “engaging with the world” mainly encourage students to apply their knowledge in their learning and work areas. Between the learning process of knowledge acquisition and knowledge application, students’ attitudes towards sustainability and their generic green skills will be developed. Learning processes for “knowledge acquisition” and “knowledge application” can be related to all four real-world opportunities. Thus, for example, visiting and engaging with the world can also facilitate knowledge acquisition by helping students identify knowledge and skills that help them to further engage in real-world problem solving. More specific learning objectives and learning activities for each learning phase are suggested in Table 1 below.

When applying and implementing this model it is important to design pedagogical strategies, learning contents and learning activities so they can facilitate students’ understanding of local issues within a global context and recognize that solutions to local problems can have global consequences, and vice versa. In addition, it should also encourage students to connect their individual life and industrial experiences to the identified issues in order to simulate their engagement with real-life contexts and to generate solutions.

The significance of this model relates to its holistic approach in developing generic green skills through knowledge acquisition and application in the context of real-world sustainable development problems brought into classroom that allow students to engage with the world

Figure 1: Problem-Oriented and Project- Based Learning⁺ (POPBL⁺) Model

Source: Authors

4.2 Design of Pedagogical Framework for Classroom Practice and Assessment

The application of the suggested model to planning classroom activities is outlined in Table 1. Pedagogical strategies and activities in Table 1 are based on the review on ESD pedagogical strategies and a consideration of the learning settings within the pilot study TVET institution. Each pedagogical strategy suggested in the framework is based on specific learning objectives and their corresponding generic green skills within different learning phases. Both pedagogical strategies and learning activities can include additional forms of learning that can provide ESD learning opportunities for students and encourage them to engage to address the identified sustainability issues.

Table 1:  Pedagogical design framework developed based on POPBL+. 

Source: Authors

Other learning methods as customer meetings, analysis of functions, construction, planning a production process or an assembly, diagnosis, maintenance, putting in to service and others that refer to technical aspects of solutions can also be included in the above learning phases to address generic technological skills. 

This general approach to planning presented in Table 1 can be used for generic green module development or as a curriculum development framework to plan specific projects. The key principle is to design a program or curriculum (including learning content and activities) based on the four progressive learning processes to include real-world learning opportunities into students’ learning, and formulate an assessment scheme based on the generic green skills framework (Pavlova, 2018).

 5. Conclusion

This paper conceptualized an ESD pedagogical model relevant for the TVET context based on the pilot study and literature review. The study identified the gap between pedagogical approaches used in TVET to teach SD issues and approaches suggested in the literature (although they are proposed for universities and other education institutions). The Problem-Oriented and Project-Based Learning Plus model (POPBL⁺) is proposed here to facilitate the effective delivery of the generic green module to enhance students’ generic green skills. Bringing the world into the classroom is an important component of this model, as the current reality of the TVET institution involved in this study would not allow students to go outside campus during the module.

This paper suggests how four components of the model can be translated into learning objectives, pedagogical strategies and learning activities and which specific generic green skills can be addressed through the different components. 

Thus the model presented in this paper has the potential to contribute to both the theoretical and practical developments related to the use of ESD pedagogy for developing generic green skills in TVET. As a result, this model enriches the understanding of ESD pedagogy in TVET. The significance of this model is in its capacity to guide effective implementation of generic green modules through designing learning activities that facilitate the development of students’ generic green skills. Research to confirm the effectiveness of this model, in particular the use of active methods of learning that can increase students’ motivation and interest, is continuing and will be reported in subsequent publications.

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Margarita Pavlova & Christy Shimin Chen (The Education University of Hong Kong)

Citation

Pavlova, M. & Chen, C.-S. (2019). Facilitating the development of students’ generic green skills in TVET: an ESD pedagogical model In: TVET@Asia, issue 12, 1-20. Online: http://www.tvetonline.asia/issue12/pavlova_etal_tvet12.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2019)