TVET@Asia Issue 20: Governance of TVET in the Era of Digitalization and Sustainable Development

Governance of TVET is a major issue and precondition for the ongoing development of TVET systems, especially in the era of digitalization and sustainable development. In the 2010 Guidelines for TVET Policy Review, UNESCO defines TVET Governance as being “concerned with how the funding, provision, ownership and regulation of TVET systems are coordinated, which actors are involved, and what are their respective roles and responsibilities, and level of formal competence – at the local, regional, national and supranational level.” The new UNESCO TVET Strategy 2022-2029 further names governance as a priority area for cross-cutting interventions in TVET by underlining governance needs to take an inclusive approach in order to achieve skills development for inclusive and peaceful societies. TVET systems and structures are constantly challenged to adapt to new legal norms, megatrends, and new technologies in order to maximise the quality of TVET provision. It has become evident that TVET governance cannot be adequately examined without considering the impact of digitalization on the labour market and work processes, on the education sector and on governance itself. As a consequence, UNESCO states that “the ethical and effective use of data in the governance, management and delivery of education and skilling initiatives” needs to be strengthened. Research on TVET is therefore a prerequisite for development – through good governance, the sharing of knowledge and the promotion of promising approaches.

The papers in this issue share views on TVET governance at different administrative levels (regional, national and institutional). They also examine how TVET governance and digitalization can go hand in hand in order to achieve sustainable quality assurance in TVET. The authors contribute to highlighting best practice examples from different countries and regions. They furthermore confirm the relevance of research on TVET governance for the development of sustainable and labour-market-relevant TVET systems.

NADYA SUBRAMANIAM (The Asia Foundation) and FAUWAZ ABDUL AZIZ (Penang Institute, Malaysia) have addressed TVET governance in Malaysia, by examining recent literature focusing on governance, quality assurance, industry, perception, and funding. The paper identifies the main research gaps and concerns, and suggests areas and directions of research that can drive and inform policy decisions at the national level and improve TVET in Malaysia. The authors noted several positive developments in TVET such as an increase of fund allocation, recognition that TVET as a game changer that could contribute to socio and economic development, and the formulation of National TVET Council. The authors argue that the latter is a culmination of various efforts and offer some hope for the betterment of TVET in the country.

In their paper, SONGHEANG AI, VORN TIM and RAVY VOEUN (SEAMEO TED) shed light on ICT skills needs assessment for technical education teachers in SEAMEO Member Countries. The authors argue that the issue of capacities in ICT applications deserves more attention, especially in developing countries. With the help of a cross-sectional survey design, the authors assess ICT skills competency levels of technical education teachers in the region. According to the survey results, internet skills of technical education teachers are quite advanced, whereas Microsoft Excel is still a challenge for many teachers. In order to improve overall ICT skills of technical education teachers, the authors advise to rely on combined resources including ICT infrastructure as well as outsourcing and curriculum review.

ANNIKA BEHRENS (TU Dortmund University), THOMAS SCHRÖDER (TU Dortmund University) and KETEVAN NATRIASHVILI (Education expert and freelancer) have written a paper on governance of TVET teacher development and management based on the case study from TVET reforms in Georgia. The paper sheds light on the measures the country has taken in recent years to improve the quality of its TVET system through TVET teacher development and management by focusing on recent reform initiatives in the TVET system. The study also has a close look at the recently introduced TVET teacher standards, the recently defined concept of TVET teachers and the Code of Ethics for TVET teachers. The authors stress the importance of meeting preconditions, both working environment and working conditions for high-quality TVET teaching, especially through the development of TVET teacher development and management (TDM).

XUAN-TIEN VO (Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Vietnam) wrote a paper on TVET governance in Vietnam by exploring effective models of school-industry collaboration. The author believes that this is timely to address the skills mismatch when industry turns rapidly to adopting high technology. The author explores various models of cooperation both formal and informal and focuses on a case study from one of the TVET institutions in Vietnam for good practice models of cooperation. Finally, the author suggests some possible solutions such as collaboration that is long lasting including in curriculum development, coordinating in training, etc.

MALAKA SAMARA (TU Dortmund University, Germany) focuses her practice-based research on local governance practices of TVET institutes in Palestine. She emphasizes the Palestinian government’s efforts to enhance, develop and increase the efficacy, responsiveness and inclusivity of national TVET institutes. As an example, she chooses the establishment of Local Employment and TVET councils (LET), whose aim is to support TVET and employment through strengthening cooperation between local TVET stakeholders and TVET providers. While pointing out the importance of the LETs, the author also highlights challenges with regard to the enhancement of quality TVET provision in Palestine. In order to ensure organised and committed institutional efforts in TVET, the author argues that LETs need their own independent legal and organisational structure, and their own financial status.

SYED ABDUL AZIZ (Research Secretary, Centre for Occupational Education and Research (CORE), Bangladesh) wrote a paper about TVET governance in Bangladesh to address various challenges particularly due to the expansion of student enrolment. The author identifies challenges in all dimensions of TVET governance and the impacts on the TVET quality, products, and services. He examines the effectiveness of the existing Acts, frameworks, and strategic plans, which he finds that the government has difficulties in implementing them. He also suggests that expanding enrolment should be accompanied by providing suitable resources, including teachers, facilities, and career and job opportunities.

THOMAS SCHRÖDER (TU Dortmund University) has written a paper on TVET governance at the regional (ASEAN) level by focusing on stages and instruments of a supranational approach particularly in response to the establishment of ASEAN Economic Community and increasing challenges in society and the world of work due to digitalisation and unsustainable practices. The paper presents important milestones along the way for organisations and actors, as well as new initiatives and instruments, including the establishment of ASEAN-wide regulatory framework of TVET -the ASEAN TVET Council- in 2020. The paper concludes by arguing for an expansion of regional TVET research and development, which can support the necessary expansion and design processes effectively.

In her paper, SYUHADA YUNOS (University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia) analyses the necessary strategic planning steps to achieve future ready TVET professionals in Malaysia. In her literature review, the author summarizes TVET transformation programmes both in Malaysia and internationally. By drawing on the economic development of the country, the author emphasizes the outstanding role the TVET sector plays in providing the country’s growing economy with qualified employees. Additionally, the opportunity of equipping the country with talented self-employed individuals through TVET programmes is mentioned. The study proposes a strategic planning approach in order to address the challenges of training future-ready professionals.

In their article, GOUHAR PIRZADA and ISRA GULZAR stress the importance of TVET for a country’s social, economic and human capital growth. However, achieving TVET graduates with the necessary industry-relevant skills set is not possible without fruitful cooperation with industry. To demonstrate to readers what this cooperation can look like, the paper provides a best practice example of the STEP Institute of Art Design & Management in Pakistan, where a study has been conducted to identify the needs and demands of the market. Consequently, the authors identify several dimensions TVET institutes should focus on in order to provide graduates with employability skills.

ABDULLAH HELMY, BRIAN FAIRMAN and ADAM VOAKreflect on teaching and learning-implications for post-pandemic TVET practice across the Further Education and Training sector in Indonesia. In times of rapid technological innovations, the authors highlight the need for adult learners to take on a more active role in their own learning processes. More specifically, the paper examines the consequences of the rapid deployment of e-learning and the expansion of communities of practice in this context. The study sheds light on the role of institutions and identifies technical challenges faced by educators and learners when moving teaching and learning into the online context. Furthermore, the authors investigate the nature of the paradigm shift required, at an institutional level, to ensure appropriate future development of an agile and responsive Indonesian administrative management, and special technological support infrastructure requirements.

By drawing on an earlier article published by one of the authors in TVET@Asia, NUR ‘ADNIN SYAMIL HALIK BASSAH and MOHD ASRI MOHD NOOR provide an insight into industry experts’ perspectives on needed employability skills for TVET graduates in Malaysia. To identify relevant employability skills for TVET graduates, this qualitative study investigates the perspective of industry experts through semi-structured interviews. The paper further argues that it is the responsibility of TVET institutions, and the graduates themselves, to foster and prepare the employability requirements of industry in order to increase the likelihood of learners being employed once they graduate. The authors also highlight the importance of strategic planning between TVET institutions and industry when aiming to achieve the establishment of successful collaboration between both stakeholders.

ISRA GULZAR investigates the multi-layered benefits of research culture in the educational sector by conducting a qualitative study on the perspectives of educational institutes in Pakistan regarding the importance of a viable research culture. To gather her data, the author conducts interviews with both leaders and teaching staff of conventional, as well as technical and vocational educational institutes. Results of the research highlight the relevance of research for the continuous development of the educational sector as well as for the adoption of innovative teaching and learning practices. The author concludes that rea viable and well defined search culture is imperative for the growth and development of Pakistani students, industry and country as a whole.

The Editors of Issue 20

Thomas Schröder, Paryono Paryono, Sommai Pivsa-Art, & Rupert Maclean

The year 2015 marks the beginning of ASEAN Economic Community, which is affecting the lives of 622 Million people and creating the third largest economy in Asia. TVET is the educational sector that vastly contributes towards the quality of living and societal development. Regional TVET systems need to continuously develop and readjust to a changing environ­ment in globalized competition on national and regional level. Relevant issues such as emerging TVET programmes, readjustment of curriculum contents, quality assurance, labor market information, recognition of qualifications across country and region, and sustainability are some areas that need special attention. 

SEAMEO VOCTECH, which is located in Brunei Darussalam, is the Regional Centre for
Vocational and Technical Education and Training. As an entity of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), it is responsible for the development of Technical and Vocational Education in Asia. The present 8th Issue of TVET@Asia is based on the International TVET Conference “Ensuring Greater Impact of TVET for Sustainable Development”, which was conducted by SEAMEO VOCTECH in Brunei Darussalam on the 1st and 2nd of June 2016.  

The 8th Issue of TVET@Asia comprises eight papers that address some of most relevant topics with respect to the broad field of TVET as an educational sector relevant for economic and societal development. The papers are intended to contribute to the development of TVET in the region in response to ASEAN integration, especially in the area of TVET quality improve­ment initiatives, regionalization and harmonization of TVET, curriculum improvement that consider new content relevant to the widening geographical market demands of TVET, strengthening the roles of public and private sectors in TVET, and integrating sustaina­bility in TVET policy and practices.

CALEB CHIDOZIE CHINEDU and WAN AZLINDA WAN-MOHAMED from Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia contribute with an article, which is titled Realigning Sustainable Development (SD) Goals for Industry and TVET Training Programs: A Crucial Undertaking. The authors explore – within the Malaysian context – industry and TVET professionals’ perspectives in relation to Sustainable Development, and discuss strategies to realign SD goals for the mutual benefit of educating and training competent vocational professionals for the mutual benefit of educating and training competent vocational professionals for a future industry.

The second article titled Brunei TVET Transformation: The Development of the Institute of Brunei Technical Education´s two Key Surveys is authored by SYAZANA EBIL, NORAZ­LINA OTHMAN, HJH NORHAKIMAH HJ MOHD NOR,  MARLINAWATI HJ AHMAD, OMARALI MUJAH, & CHIN WEI KEH  from the Institute of Brunei Technical Education (Brunei Darussalam). The article focuses on developing Key Performance Indicators of TVET institutions, based on the measurement of graduates’ employment rate and employers’ satisfaction towards TVET graduates’ performances. The paper shares the experience of developing and conducting the surveys, identifying some of the challenges faced and finally offers several recommendations.

MARCELINO C. GAPULTOS Jr. from SEAMEO VOCTECH (Brunei Darussalam) examines in his paper: The Corporate Image Building Programme of TVET Institutions in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. In this paper he discusses several Corporate Image building (CIb) activities for TVET institutions of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam as perceived by its school administrators. He claims that TVET institutions are often perceived as second class and inferior to colleges and universities offering academic degrees, which underpins the relevance of his paper for the region.

ANA A, YEYET ROSTIKA, ADE JUWAEDAH, ASEP SETIADI, and INU HARDIKUSUMAH from Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (UPI) present their research work in an article titled The Effect of Personal Traits to Entrepreneurship Intention of Students at Tourism Vocational High Schools in Bandung. The group of researchers from Bandung investigates the effects of various personal traits on students’ entrepreneurship intentions in the field of tourism at vocational high schools. The findings may be used as an input for schools, government agencies and policy makers to stimulate and encourage youth entrepreneurial interest.

SYAZWANI NUR AFIDA PG MAHMUD and CHIN WEI KEH from Brunei Institute of Technology Education (Brunei Darussalam) contribute the fifth article, which they titled A Study on the Use of Feedback to Improve Assessment of Life Skills in Mechanical Engineering Courses. The authors examine a selection of teaching and assessment methods, i.e. feedback methods that can develop life skills more effectively.  The authors define Life Skills as a crucial aspect in engineering practice and as a precondition for a lifelong employability. 

PHOUNG CHI DIEP from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology Education (Vietnam) contributed the sixth article, which she titled Solutions for the Improvement of Regional TVET Quality in the Wake of ASEAN Economic Community (AEC).  The paper offers a number of solutions in order to deal with various relevant TVET issues on a regional level. Issues under consideration include; assuring high levels of training quality, mutual recognition of qualifications at regional level, and the lack of quantity and quality of TVET teachers and instructors to prepare graduates not only for working in their country but in the entire region.

KIRAK RYU from KRIVET (South Korea) examines in his article, Localization of TVET Govern­ance in Korea, the process of decentralising skills development systems and explains the roles of major stakeholders, especially the central government’s role in the transition process. In addition, the paper also summarizes main challenges that the new TVET governance confronts, and puts forward policy suggestions. The Korean TVET system is widely acknowledged by the international community for its great achievements in terms of effectiveness and efficiency.

FARUQUE AHMET HAOLADER, DAVUT CICOGLU, and KALINAKI KASSIM (Bangla­­desh) contribute an interesting paper on A Model of Technical and Vocational Teacher Education at Bachelor’s Degree Level and its Relevance with Occupational Tasks of TVET Teachers in the OIC Member States. The Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) comprises 57 member states and 5 states with observer status, which demonstrates the enormous reach of this study program. The paper evaluates the TVET teacher education model offered by the Islamic University of Technology (IUT) at Bachelor’s Degree level in terms of its relevance for the occupational tasks of a TVET teacher. The paper discusses the model´s strengths and limitations, and it examines the effectiveness of the curriculum based on the perception of the teachers.

The above depicted papers, based on experiences from a number of countries from Southeast Asia (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam), South Asia (Bangladesh) and East Asia (South Korea), offer insight in various perspectives on the journal´s theme of TVET Quality Improvement Initiatives in the wake of regional integration. The variety of perspec­tives demonstrates that different approaches are inevitably necessary to cover all aspects of TVET in such a divers region as Southeast Asia and it fully demonstrates that action-research projects in cooperation with training institutes incents a continuous development of quality in TVET. TVET systems and institutional research on TVET systems form a powerful unity that literally represents SEAMEO VOCTECH´s motto: “TOGETHER WE EXCEL!”

Thank you to the contributors and please enjoy reading!

The editors of Issue 8

Paryono Paryono, Georg Spöttl, Thomas Schröder, and Adeline Goh

Citation

Paryono, P., Spöttl, G., Schröder, T., & Goh, A. (2017). Editorial Issue 8. TVET Quality Improve-ment Initiatives in the Wake of ASEAN Economic Community 2015. In: TVET@Asia, issue 8, 1-3. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue8/editorial_paryono_etal_tvet8.pdf (retrieved 28.01.2017).

East and Southeast Asia are experiencing a rapid pace of economic development that call for continuous review of education and training systems. TVET reform processes at the national and regional levels are addressing the question of quality and standards. During the past decades a vast variety of different approaches in TVET were developed or introduced. These approaches were often inspired through transfer or adoption from other regions of the world. In consequence, a vast variety of TVET-systems were implemented in different countries in the region and may require continues review and adaptation. Some states have no coherent national TVET-system with a common underlying concept of quality. A vast variety of TVET approaches consequently employ different concepts of quality and quality management in TVET.

Standards in TVET differ from the concept of quality. In order to enhance the mobility of labour force, especially with respect to ASEAN Economic Community 2015 and ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), standards will gain a wider importance at the regional level. Mutual recognition of learning outcome or certificates will only be achievable with standards that have similar underlying concept or structure.

The 4th issue aims at enhancing the discussion with respect to a coherent understanding of TVET quality and its underlying concepts. The editorial team of the 4th issue received and selected relevant articles comprising research-, practice-, and policy-based papers with respect to TVET quality and standards as covered in the following questions:

• What can be learned from the vast variety of TVET-approaches and their underlying concept and understanding of quality and/or standards with respect to the quality of labour force?
• What concepts of quality and/or standards in TVET exist?
• How can quality be measured and the results be used for further development and innovation?
• What systems of quality management are being employed and how are they used to enhance continuously the quality and to steer the TVET system?

The articles cover topics as described below:

GERT LOOSE and GEORG SPÖTTL establish a symbiosis of assessment-oriented and experience-oriented training in the course of implementing “intelligent standards” as reliable benchmarks. Fourteen main principles comprise orientation marks, as well as the importance of high flexibility to even out regional disparities. The application of practical experience provides the context of attaining the competences required by the labor market.

With the goal of accomplishing an effective governance of the TVET sector and thus improving the evolvement of highly-skilled human resources to stabilize Malaysia’s econo¬my, MOHAMAD SATTAR RASUL, ZOOL HILMI MOHAMED ASHARI, NORZAINI AZMAN and ROSE AMNAH ABDUL RAUF give a comprehensive insight into Malaysia’s TVET-sector transformation policy and governance issues and its resulting challenges and difficulties.

CAROLINA LASAMBOUW describes the current research management process in Bandung State Polytechnic (POLBAN), emphasizing the need to lower barriers and increase the efficiency of research in vocational higher education in Indonesia based on nine problematic aspects. These aspects are of mayor importance in order to support education and community service duty and call for the decentralization policy as a part of higher education autonomy.

MUSTAFA and STEFANIE PETRICK introduce QMSiS as a practical example from a voca-tional high school in Makassar, Indonesia that achieves a better TVET-quality. Considering the eight Indonesian education standards, QMSiS additionally combines characteristics of ISO 9001:2008 with the concept Q2E1, allowing vocational schools to develop their own quality management standards (QMS). The internal and external school processes as well as the industry linkage have been improved under QMSiS.

MOHD BEKRI RAHIM explains how e-portfolios, which are used in Malaysian Skill Certifi-ca¬tion (MSC), provide an efficient method for students’ competence evaluation, give descrip-tions of students’ development process, work as a storage of artefacts, facilitate assess¬ments and enable online learning. In a modified Delphi-study of three rounds, twenty two indicators for virtual learning and five indicators for competency assessment were identified as impor-tant to MSC.

THOMAS SCHRÖDER provides a theoretical basis for inter-institutional and cross-regional research activities on vocational education in East and Southeast Asia. The resulting concept of “Scientific Coaching” offers a holistic and work process-related approach and enables scientific capacity building in the field of vocational education on the grounds of targeted and experience-based competence development.

Thank you to the contributors. Enjoy reading!

The Editors of Issue 4

Paryono Paryono, Georg Spoettl, Phil Loveder, and Chin Wei Keh

Citation

Paryono, P., Spoettl, G., Loveder, P., & Chin, W.K.(2015). Editorial Issue 4: Mitigating TVET quality and standards as a basis for harmonising its systems at the national and regional levels. In: TVET@Asia, issue 4, 1-2. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue4/editorial_tvet4.pdf (retrieved 30.1.2015).

Most countries in Southeast Asia are positioning Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in the mainstream of education systems and setting it as a priority in their education agenda in view of the fact that this type of education plays an important role in the socio-economic development of a nation. New national and regional initiatives in TVET have been created in response to various changes in social, political, and technological landscapes. This paper intends to map out salient TVET initiatives especially those that have the potential to have a greater impact not only on the individual country but also on the whole region or beyond. Some of the selected initiatives include addressing TVET quality and qualification frameworks. At a national level, all countries are raising the bar to benchmark their TVET quality. Quality assurance mechanisms via proper guidelines and accreditation have been established in most countries. Many countries in the region have also recently adopted National Qualification Frameworks in response to student and labour mobility as well as to encourage the implementation of life-long learning and the Education For All (EFA) agenda. At regional and global levels, the issue of student and labour mobility are also very prevalent particularly in anticipation of full ASEAN Integration in 2015. In response, there has been progression toward mutual recognition arrangements for education and training certificates and credentials between countries, regional qualification frameworks, and regional quality assurance frameworks. These are some of the significant TVET initiatives that have been discussed at various regional meetings such as those organized by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), ASEAN+3, ASEAN+6, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), International Labour Organisation (ILO), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Colombo Plan Staff College (CPSC), Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP), East Asia Summit, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and Asia Europe Meeting (ASEM). This map of TVET initiatives will provide a picture of what has been addressed nationally, regionally, and internationally to be used as a reference and simultaneously stimulate ideas and collaboration for improving TVET policies and practices.

1 Introduction

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) plays an extremely vital role in preparing the current and future labour forces that could drive economic and social development. It becomes imperative that the development and expansion of technical and vocational education as continuing education, both within and outside the formal education system, with either public or private funding, and within the framework of lifelong learning, should be a prioritised objective of all educational strategies.

TVET plays important roles in (1) providing the skill sets required by enterprises and across national economies; (2) supporting pathways into employment for young people; (3) strengthening mobility between occupations for experienced workers; and (4) supporting the development of new skills and assisting workers to be prepared to change or progress in their occupations/careers. Furthermore, TVET should be able to adjust the capacity more quickly as the pace of change regarding industry products and processes increases (Bateman et al. 2012).

Many countries in the Southeast Asian region are prioritising TVET in the national agenda propelled by the view that it is the prime mover in socio-economic development. Policies and initiatives have been formulated. Resources have been allocated to upgrade the TVET facilities and ensure its continued operation within the whole educational system. Likewise, many multi-national organizations such as UNESCO, ILO, ASEAN, SEAMEO locate TVET highly on their important agenda.

Nonetheless, implementing TVET poses a great challenge to many countries. Issues and concerns have hampered the implementation of policies including the issue of financing of TVET, relevance of the curriculum to industry needs, horizontal and vertical articulation within TVET qualifications and to higher education qualifications, quality assurance in TVET provision, and teachers’ competence (Omar & Paryono 2008). In meeting these challenges, some certain Southeast Asian and other countries have developed innovative policies and practices to solve the most prevailing issues within their TVET system. Many multi-national organizations have also following suite, by addressing these issues.

The ASEAN community is to be fully integrated in 2015. This means that the flow of goods, students and workers across regions will be greater. To facilitate this integration, many multi-national organisations have begun initiatives to accommodate student and labour mobility, such as the development of mutual recognition of certificates, qualification frameworks, etc. This paper will discuss both national and regional initiatives relevant to TVET that facilitate ASEAN integration.

2 National initiatives in TVET

Numerous TVET initiatives have been taken in the ASEAN member countries to facilitate ASEAN integration. The most vital initiative has been the creation of National Qualification Frameworks to be used as a means for promoting the development, implementing and facilitating of a transparent mechanism used in the assessment, certification, and recognition of skills. A comprehensive NQF has the potential to recognize any learning regardless of the site (where the learning takes place), the form of provision (formal, informal, and non-formal), and the type of pedagogy and curriculum used. “It is argued that NQFs are necessary to overcome the barriers between different national subsystems of education and training, notably between vocational education and training and higher education and between initial and continuing education and training.” (Bjornavold & Coles 2008, 204) Further on it is argued that all NQFs aim to establish a basis for improving the links between qualifications and the quality, accessibility, and public or labour market recognition of such qualifications within a country and internationally. A comprehensive and outcomes-led NQF requires intensive preparation and strong commitment.

Table 1: Comparing NQFs in selected ASEAN member countries

From Table 1, we can see great similarity between the three NQFs. The noticeable differences are that Indonesia has 9 levels whereas the other two have eight and use different terms and qualifications to describe diploma and certificate levels.

Some countries have “partial” NQFs whereby not all education and training qualifications are included in the framework. Some place emphasis on higher education while others emphasize TVET more. Thailand, for instance, has a National Qualification Framework for Higher Education. It has 6 levels: Level 1 (Associate Degree), Level 2 (Bachelor), Level 3 (Graduate Diploma), Level 4 (Master), Level 5 (Higher Graduate Diploma), Level 6 (Doctorate). The Office for Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) of Thailand has also developed a qualification framework consisting of 7 levels: Level 1 (semi skilled), Level 2 (Craftsman/ skilled), Level 3 (highly skilled), Level 4(technician), Level 5 (senior technician), Level 6 (specialist), Level 7 (senior specialist). Some developments combine the two to create a “comprehensive” NQF.

The Singapore Workforce Development Agency (SWDA) developed the Singapore Workforce Skills Qualification that is more associated with a TVET Qualification Framework. It is made up of 8 levels: Level 1 (pre-beginning), Level 2 (beginning/certificate), Level 3 (high beginning/higher certificate), Level 4 (low intermediate/advanced certificate), Level 5 (high intermediate/diploma), Level 6 (advanced/specialist diploma), Level 7 (high advanced/graduate certificate), and Level 8 (proficient/graduate diploma). The higher education qualifications have yet to be integrated in the framework.

Other countries like Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR, and Vietnam are still in the process of developing their NQFs. To a certain degree the differing status of NQF development among ASEAN member countries affects the progress of the Regional Qualification Framework, even though it is not the pre-requisite.

3 Regional initiatives in TVET for ASEAN integration

3.1 East-Asia Summit on TVET Quality Assurance Framework (EAS TVET QAF)

In response to the growing mobility of students and workers, the countries have been venturing into improving the connectivity of their TVET systems to support regional economic integration via cross-border investment and the mobility of skilled labour. Currently, these processes have striven towards mechanisms for improving cross-national connectivity, particularly regarding occupational standards and qualifications (Bateman et al. 2012).

In TVET, the globalisation of economies and the international flow of students and workers require more attention in improving the effectiveness of qualifications and skills recognition across the economic regions by improving connectivity of TVET policies and practices among member countries. “A key strategy for improving connectivity is to develop a common understanding of effective approaches to key elements of the education system in order to eliminate unnecessary barriers to recognition and mobility and provide a basis for the alignment of systems.” (Bateman et al. 2012). The development of Regional TVET Quality Assurance and Qualification Frameworks serves the purpose for building connectivity among various education and training modalities across the region.

EAS has a commitment to strengthen, expand and advance regional TVET cooperation between the EAS participating countries and reiterated the pivotal role of TVET, not only in promoting human resources development, but also as a means for bridging development gaps, enhancing regional competitiveness, achieving sustained economic development, and promoting friendship and mutual understanding among people in the region. One of the EAS initiatives is on the TVET QAF intended to provide a set of principles, standards and quality indicators to assist EAS countries to develop, improve, reform, guide and assess the quality of their TVET systems, and provide a basis for alignment between national TVET systems (ASEAN 2012).

The objectives of the EAS TVET QAF are to (1) enable countries to promote and monitor the improvement of their quality assurance systems; (2) facilitate cooperation and mutual understanding between member countries; and (3) support other initiatives within and across the region that enhance connectivity, integration, education and labour mobility, e.g. the ASEAN Regional Qualifications Framework. This is a coherent package capable of guiding the design and implementation of measures to strengthen quality assurance at the country level as well as providing a basis for alignment between national TVET quality assurance strategies (ASEAN 2012).

Currently, the EAS TVET QAF has been discussed at various regional meetings and was presented at the Seventh ASEAN Senior Officials Meeting on Education (7th SOM-ED) in Bangkok on 29thNovember 2012. There is a need for subsequent dialogues to finalise the EAS TVET Quality Assurance Framework, capacity building programmes in individual countries, and the ongoing management of the framework and related referencing activities.

3.2 Regional Qualification Framework

There have been several attempts by various organisations to develop an ASEAN Regional Qualification Framework in Southeast Asia. Many hold that an RQF will provide a reference point and translation grid for all qualifications throughout Southeast Asia and that it will benefit employers, education providers and job seekers to recognize qualifications issued within the region. Others feel that the RQF will only function if all member countries recognize the benefits of it and support the initiation and the implementation of it whole-heartedly.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Secretariat, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Bangkok, UNESCO Bangkok, and SEAMEO have been actively involved in the discussions and development of documents that support the implementation of RQF. In some countries pilot testing of certain areas of qualifications, such as hospitality and tourism has been initiated. Bilateral efforts have also been pursued to recognize each other’s qualification for credit transfer and employment.

Table 2: Major development towards ASEAN RQF

An outline of ASEAN RQF in TVET is agreed by 5 SEA countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) (Dang 2011), see Table 3.

Table 3: Initial development of ASEAN RQF in TVET

Based on the current status, the development of a comprehensive ASEAN RQF still has a long way to go. To move forward, there is a need to identify major obstacles including reaching a mutual understanding between the “sending” and the “receiving” countries and identifying key players to be in the taskforce. It requires strong and long-lasting commitment by the participating countries and entails strong collaborations within and across Ministries, and other stakeholders in the participating countries (Paryono 2010). Nevertheless, there have been significant steps towards an ASEAN RQF that will facilitate student and labour mobility in the region.

4 Concluding remarks

The importance of TVET has been highlighted in both national and regional education and development agendas. Three TVET salient initiatives in response to student and labour mobility in the Southeast Asian region and beyond have been mapped out in this paper: the development of National Qualification Frameworks (NQFs), Regional Quality Assurance Framework (RQAF), and Regional Qualification Framework (RQF). These are some among many initiatives in anticipation of full ASEAN integration in 2015.

The state of NQF development varies between ASEAN member countries. Examining the current trend, however, it seems that all member countries are moving towards the development and implementation of comprehensive NQFs which integrate all levels and types of education and training schemes. A comprehensive and outcomes-led NQF requires intensive preparations and strong commitments. Even in countries that have successfully developed the framework, it doesn’t always translate into successful implementation. Communication is required between the various Ministries, education and training providers, and industries for successful implementation.

All countries have their own way of assuring TVET quality. The development of a Regional TVET Quality Assurance Framework will facilitate in promoting continuous improvement of TVET within the country and enhance cooperation and mutual understanding between member countries. This will eventually improve connectivity, integration, education and labour mobility. Once the framework is successfully developed, it will be a useful tool for self-assessment or accreditation. It will be up to the participating countries to utilize the framework that best fits their needs. To support this initiative, it is vital to establish a smaller TVET quality assurance, such as focusing on teacher quality standards. This can be a useful reference for all teachers to benchmark their competencies set against standards that help them gain awareness of their current status and give ideas and impetus to continuously improve their skills and get to the next level.

The most challenging initiative is the development of a Regional Qualification Framework. It is a great challenge developing a comprehensive NQF, let alone the development of RQF. The initiation requires strong commitment of various bodies/organizations from various countries. Learning from other RQFs such as the European Qualification Framework and the Australia-New Zealand Qualification Framework, however, one can anticipate that ASEAN RQF will help learners and workers wishing to move between countries or change jobs or move between educational institutions at home more easily and efficiently. Last but certainly not least, this framework will hopefully contribute to the improvement of regional competitiveness.

References

ASEAN (2012). Summary Record of The EAS TVET QAF Workshop. A paper to be presented at the Seventh ASEAN Senior Officials Meeting on Education (7th SOM-ED), Bangkok, Thailand on 29 November 2012. Doc. No 9. Agenda Item 8.2.

Bateman, A., Keating, J., Gillis, S. & Dyson, C. (2012). Concept Paper: EAST ASIA SUMMIT Vocational Education and Training Quality Assurance Framework.

Bjornavold, J. & Coles, M. (2008). Governing education and training; the case of qualifications frameworks. In: European Journal of Vocational Training, 42/43, 203-235.

Dang, Q. A. (2011). ASEAN Regional Qualifications Framework: Current Architecture and Challenges. Paper presented at Asia-Europe Meeting, Budapest, 25-26 May 2011.

Omar, S. & Paryono (2008). Emerging trends and issues in VTET: SEAMEO VOCTECH’s responses. In: SEAMEO VOCTECH Journal, 9 (1), 38-49.

Paryono (2010). Regional Qualification Frameworks in Southeast Asia: Current Status, Opportunities, and Challenges. In: SEAMEO VOCTECH Journal, 10 (1), 30-37.

Citation

Paryono (2013). Mapping national and regional TVET initiatives in Southeast Asia and beyond in response to students and labour mobility. In: TVET@Asia, issue 1, 1-8. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue1/paryono_tvet1.pdf (retrieved 30.5.2013).

East and Southeast Asia are in the process of experiencing a period of outstanding economic growth and extraordinarily dynamic development and in view of the political regionalisation process achieving a common market by 2015 it should be lent a significant degree of additional momentum. To sustain the rapid development and face the challenges caused by the structural changes of economies, those societies involved will be depending on a highly skilled workforce and thus on functioning TVET-systems to meet both economic and societal demands. TVET-systems are in a process of permanent adaptation to the socioeconomic environment, which leads to an all-round increase and improvement of praxis-orientation in teaching-learning processes. It is evident that the sole employment of the traditional “chalk-and-talk” method in teacher-centred educational settings, does not produce the required workforce.

Vocational teacher education has a focal position in furthering the development of vocational education. The vocational college teacher is charged with the task of educating workers in special areas of expertise and enabling the student to react well and appropriately to current and future professional, economic and societal demands. The vocational college teacher working in the TVET system has to update, adapt and further develop through the entire duration of his/her work life. In these most necessary, bottom-up processes the vocational college teacher acts as a change agent; an individual who actively shapes and designs the TVET system and makes it enduringly future-secure.

Vocational teacher education and further education constitutes a central field of action in education policy. Complying with the logic of developing societies and in a world where technologies and processes are becoming increasingly demanding, it is vital that vocational teacher education is grounded in the universities – as is in fact normally the case in the region. Nonetheless, universities can provide only a very limited scope of practical activity, learning experiences and competences, which is why vocational schools and in-company learning sites form additional vital parts of a comprehensive system for vocational teacher education. In developed societies, however, universities fulfil an essential function in which an accumulation of experts’ knowledge can be injected into systemic innovation processes as intended through action-research on vocational education. The generated knowledge can be tapped into via dissemination across national borders. Research can and must afford an independent research-result-based contribution to the further development and reform of vocational education. Over the past 2 years RCP member universities have provided evidence-based recommendations resulting in national policy reforms and preparing the ground for an on-going development of institutionalized research, as clearly set out by the Thanyaburi Statement.

To contribute most effectively to the development and systemic progression of TVET-systems, the Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP) and its 12 member universities focus primarily on

• improving vocational teacher education (VTE),
• carrying out action-research on vocational education (RVE) and
• supporting regional integration processes in terms of both VTE and RVE.

The 2nd Issue of TVET@Asia is reflecting the ongoing discussion among the universities of the RCP. The articles are based on common research activities and on contributions being made during the Conference „Vocational Teacher Education and Research as a Task and Challenge for the East- and Southeast Asian Region” which was conducted at Tongji University on the 24th-25th October 2013 in cooperation with SEAMEO VOCTECH and the UNESCO regional office Bangkok. The conference was funded by the German Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation (BMZ) and supported by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ).

The Editors of Issue 2

Thomas Schröder, Paryono, Gwang-Chol Chang, Feng Xiao

Citation

Schroeder, T., Paryono, Chang, G.-W., & Feng, X. (2013). Editorial Issue 2: Vocational teacher education and research as a task and challenge for the East- and Southeast Asian region. In: TVET@Asia, issue 2, 1-2. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue2/editorial_tvet2.pdf (retrieved 30.12.2013).

Most countries in Southeast Asia are now positioning technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in the mainstream of education system thus becoming a priority in their education agenda to support the socio-economic development of the nation (SEAMEO VOCTECH 2012). TVET teachers and instructors are still the pressing issue due to a lack of quality and quantity in most countries. Most TVET teachers are recruited from fresh graduates of vocational and technical colleges and universities, thus lacking industrial experiences. This paper focuses on issues around the preparation of TVET teachers based on a meta-analysis of nine country reports presented during SEAMEO VOCTECH’s Expert meeting in collaboration with UNESCO UNEVOC in Thailand in December 2012 and updated from the country reports of training participants during fiscal year 2013/2014, and SEAMEO VOCTECH’s sharing sessions with the 2014 Governing Board Meeting. Based on these reports, this paper analyses common policies and practices, challenges, strategies and proposes some recommendations. The salient findings from Brunei on the current policies and practices include the effort for ensuring high quality teachers, enhancing teachers’ professional standards and enhancing the image of teaching as a first choice profession. Indonesia is focusing on teacher certification programs by stressing the importance of qualification and teacher competency standards. Lao and Cambodia are focusing on raising their teachers’ qualification to higher diploma and baccalaureate. Malaysia is addressing the complexity of various providers and perspectives by forming the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) and transforming teachers’ competencies by including industrial experience and considering industry needs, creating policy guidelines to develop highly effective instructors, and promoting teacher capacity building program by introducing a training levy. Myanmar is introducing e-learning systems to teachers to further their education and training in accordance with National Qualification Standards (NQF) and proposed ASEAN Qualification Standards (AQF). Singapore Institute of Technical Education is training its own teachers using competency-based curriculum (CBC) and authentic learning approach using TPCK model (Technological, Pedagogical, Content, Working Knowledge). Thailand is emphasizing the importance of education for sustainable development for TVET teachers, introducing Problem-based Learning (PBL) and using instructional media. Vietnam is highlighting the importance of upgrading teaching staff both pre and in-service focusing on management, contents, curricula, teaching and assessment methods. This paper also discusses some challenges and issues in TVET teacher education: inter alia the lack of industrial experience, attracting certain gender in teaching force, linking with industry, and issues of standardization. Selected strategies are also discussed, including recommendations to enhance the quality and quantity of teachers by addressing issues of flexibility and mobility.

1 Introduction

Referring to 2014 EFA Global Monitoring Report, there was a call for more effort to be made to ensure that children actually learn when they go to school, which can be achieved when governments invest in well-qualified and motivated teachers (UNESCO 2014). In academic or general education as well as in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), teachers are the backbone of education and training systems.

In Southeast Asian region, TVET teachers have been crucial issue in most member countries of ASEAN, both due to the lack of numbers and the quality of teachers (SEAMEO VOCTECH 2012). The increasing number of student enrolments requires more vocational schools and more teachers. Indonesia and Thailand are very progressive in promoting TVET at secondary level by targeting a TVET enrolment that equals or exceeds those enrolled in general education. In terms of quality, most new TVET teachers in the region are fresh graduates from vocational and technical colleges and universities, thus they lack industrial and teaching experiences (SEAMEO VOCTECH 2012). The lack of industrial working culture among TVET hindered the efforts of transferring the working culture to the students. These are some issues identified during the TVET Experts Meeting 2012 that require further studies.

Considering the crucial roles of teachers and many issues related to TVET teachers in the region, it was worth the effort to organize a TVET Experts meeting in March 2012 to share the current status and at the same time identify research agenda for TVET teacher education in the region, which was one of the bases of this paper. The experts meeting had the following objectives: (1) to map out the current development of TVET teacher education in Southeast Asian Countries, (2) to plan research agenda on TVET teacher education in the region, and (3) to offer a research capacity building opportunity for the experts group by participating in International Conference on “The Excellence in Teacher Education and Research Innovation”.

During the SEAMEO VOCTECH’s Governing Board Meeting in September 2014, the Centre also organized a sharing session on “Current TVET Policies, Issues and Strategies in SEAMEO Member Countries” participated by the High Officials in-charge of TVET in the SEAMEO member countries and invited speakers from ASEAN (the Association of Southeast Asian Nation) Secretariat, ASEAN-China Centre, and RAVTE (Regional Association of Vocational Teacher Education), the importance of addressing student and labour mobility in the region in anticipation of ASEAN Economic Community 2015 was highlighted. Having an ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework for easy referencing of qualifications among the countries within the region and TVET Quality Assurance Framework was considered necessary for the success of ASEAN Integration, especially on student and labour mobility. As part of assuring the quality of TVET, teacher competence was one of the important pillars to address in the meeting, especially on pre-service and in-service TVET teacher education, including continuous professional development (CPD).

To provide a summary of TVET teacher education and training in the 9 Southeast Asian countries namely Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, including the current status and future initiatives, the author presents a brief overview followed by a table listing salient and current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations proposed by the experts who participated in the meeting. The information was gathered primarily from the 2012 TVET Experts Meeting in Bangkok, SEAMEO VOCTECH’s Sharing Session 2014, and country reports from the Centre’s Regional Training Programmes 2013/2014. In addition, relevant data and information from UNESCO and UNESCO UNEVOC were also used as complements and enriching discussions.

2 Overview of TVET teacher education in selected countries in Southeast Asia

2.1 TVET teacher education in Brunei Darussalam

The Brunei government has taken initiatives in recent years to improve the quality of the teaching staff by upgrading the only teacher education institution in the country, which is the School of Hasanal Bolkiah Institute of Education under Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), to be a graduate school. This means that all the teachers will be trained at only graduate level, such as Master of Teaching (MTeach), Master of Education, Doctor of Philosophy, and Graduate Diploma in Education. The key features of the MTeach are: (1) Extensive practical experience in the learning environment from the beginning of study, (2) Focus on research-based teaching, (3) Mentoring by experienced teachers and professionals in partner schools, (4) Deep understanding of the learning process and the design of teaching, and (5) Integration of the disciplinary knowledge of graduate entry students with masters-level study of how to teach (Chin 2012).

MTeach is a master programme offered at Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) level 7 or Australian Qualification Framework (AQF) level 9. The Graduate Diploma in Education is a one-year full-time initial teacher preparation programme introduced in the year 2012 that qualifies graduates for employment as educators. The GradDipEd is a one year 40 modular credits programme offered in the area of early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, TVET, counselling in education and special educational needs.GradDipEd is a graduate programmes offered at graduate level but not at master standard. It is a programme at Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) level 6 or Australian Qualification Framework (AQF) level 8.

Existing teachers who have yet to obtain a teaching qualification may enrol in the Diploma in Technical Education. It is a one-year programme designed for those teachers who need a teaching qualification but their educational background failed to meet the entry requirement of the University, i.e. those with a Higher National Diploma. Currently, the Diploma in Technical Education programme is run under the Continuing Education Centre of UBD.

In summary, there are three different types of initial teacher preparation for TVET teachers in Brunei (see Figure 1). From the entrance requirement perspective, the master level, MTeach caters for those TVET teachers with a 2:2 or higher classification degree at relevant field of study. The GradDipEd caters for degree holders at relevant field of study, while the Diploma in Technical Education caters for those TVET teachers with Higher National Diploma qualification. Although the programme structure for all three initial teacher preparation programmes are different, one common observation is that the programmes do not offer professional or technical subject matter (Chin 2012).

Figure 1: Pre-service vocational teacher education in Brunei Darussalam

Further Chin stated that one of the obvious challenges for the current TVET initial teacher education programmes is the need to expose the teachers to the industries. The current MTeach, GradDipEd and Diploma in Technical Education programmes fail to address this issue.Although there are some positive changes in the TVET initial teacher preparation programmes, very little emphasis has been placed on the professional development of existing TVET teachers (see Table 1). Professional development of existing teacher should be in line with the changes in initial teacher preparation programmes.

Table 1: Brunei Darussalam’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations.

Recently, Brunei Government has endorsed TVET transformation, including the initiative to recruit teachers coming from industry. One of the key changes in TVET transformation in Brunei is renaming the Department of Technical Education (DTE) to bethe Institute of Brunei Technical Education (IBTE). It will be a system which builds on the educational foundation under SPN-21 and is aligned with the skilled manpower demands of industry and repositioned as a post-secondary education institution. Vocational education and training under IBTE will be practice-based, hands-on and experiential. The teachers who can best meet the needs of students in this learning environment are those who not only have the appropriate professional qualifications but most importantly the relevant industrial experience with pedagogic training. A new enhanced scheme of teaching service will be introduced to attract, retain and develop the right types and number of staff in meeting the needs of an expanded TVET system (Chin 2014).

2.2 TVET teacher education in Cambodia

Teacher education in Cambodia has two types: Academic and TVET teacher education. Academic teachers education is conducted by National Institute of Education (NIE) which is under the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoEYS), and TVET teacher education is conducted by Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MoLVT) and the National Technical Training Institute (NTTI) is the only institution under the umbrella of MoLVT which has the main duty to train TVET Teachers for the whole country. The TVET teacher training at NTTI is a one year programme consisting of 37 credits, offering Junior and Senior levels programmes, focusing mainly on skills upgrading in terms of andragogy and soft skills (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Pre-service Vocational Teacher Education in NTTI Cambodia (Source: NTTI website and Khemarin 2012, UNESCO UNEVOC 2014)

Table 2: Cambodia’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations.

There is still a need to improve the undervalued image of a vocational education as people view TVET as a second-choice (see Table 2 for more complete list). This being the case, the system is having difficulty to attract female applicants. Further, for the system to meet the demands of the industries, there is a need for NTTI to align the curriculum and link with industry to meet the demand for skilled workers and technicians. Strengthening and upgrading of technical teachers based on new technology and current and future needs of labour market will ensure that the TVET teacher education is able to contribute to the socio-economic development of the country (Khemarin 2012).

2.3 TVET teacher education in Indonesia

Skills gaps in Indonesia are considered as serious obstacles, thus investment in education and training is needed (UNESCO UNEVOC, 2014a). One of the policies in response to this issue was the formulation of Teacher Law of 2005 and its respective regulations for the organization of the teaching profession and its quality. The more comprehensive policies, issues, and strategies for TVET teacher education can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3: Indonesia’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations.

In Indonesia, TVET teachers for secondary vocational and technical schools are prepared by the Educational Institutions for Teaching Personnel (LPTK) comprising the universities that offer vocational and technical teacher education formerly known as Institute of Teacher Training and Education (IKIP) and Faculty of Teaching and Educational Sciences (FKIP) under universities, and private STKIPs (Colleges of Teaching and Educational Sciences). In addition, Vocational Education Development Centres, now called P4TK (Pusat Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan/ Center for Development and Empowerment of Teachers and Education Personnel) are also in charge of providing in-service training for TVET teachers.

One of the current policies under TVET teacher education is teacher certification (Hanafi 2012). The initiative is intended to ensure that the teachers have mastered the required competencies that lead to the improvement of the quality of education in Indonesia. The programme is conducted as an in-service for teachers and is expected to produce better quality of education because the students, including vocational high school (SMK) students, are taught by certified and professional teachers. The teacher certification process is conducted through (1) the direct provision of the certificate, (2) portfolio assessment, (3) education and training of the teacher (PLPG), and (4) teacher professional education (PPG). The teachers are free to select the route they prefer considering their capability and capacity. Starting from the year 2011, the implementation of the in-service teacher certification is recommended to be education and training (PLPG) without neglecting the willingness of the teachers to take direct provision and portfolio assessment with certain requirements. In addition, collaborative Teacher Professional Education (PPG) program is being initiated for pre-service teachers of vocational high schools (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Pre-service and In-service Vocational Teacher Education in Indonesia (Source: Hanafi 2012 and Nurlaela 2014)

Based on this law, the minimum educational qualification for TVET teachers at secondary vocational schools (SMK) is either Diploma 4 or Undergraduate Degree. Under the recently initiated Teacher Profession Education Programme (PPG), the graduates from D4 or Bachelor (S-1) may pursue for one to two semesters of teacher education and training. For those graduated from non-pedagogic programmes (non-kependidikan) in the areas not offered by LPTK, they may pursue teaching profession through PPG with additional one to two semesters of teacher education and training. The model for PPG is represented by the process and product components of education. The process of education takes two semesters, one semester for strengthening pedagogic (including practice teaching workshop) and relevant technical/vocational competencies, and second semester for practice teaching. The students then take a competency assessment to qualify for receiving two certificates: teaching certificate and vocational/technical expertise certificate.

2.4 TVET teacher education in Lao PDR

Based on UNESCO UNEVOC (2013), many of TVET teachers in Lao PDR were lacking real work experience. Most teachers graduated from technical schools, polytechnics, colleges or universities. Non-formal TVET is under the Ministry of Education and Sports (MOES) and the programmes run in Integrated Vocational Education and Training (IVET) schools (a few centres), and in Community Learning Centres (CLCs) across the country. In addition, the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare (MOLSW) runs 4 skills-development centres.

Vocational Education Development Center (VEDC) (now Institute for Vocational Education) and the National University of Lao PDR (NUOL) have been playing a critical role in pre-service TVET teacher training. The Faculty of Engineering of the NUOL train TVET teachers at Bachelor level, whereas, VEDC train TVET teachers and trainers at Higher Diploma and Bachelor (continuous) level (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: Pre-service Vocational Teacher Education in Lao PDR (Source: Sisoulath 2012; UNESCO UNEVOC 2013)

In 2008, the government of Lao decided to expand the capacity for preparing teachers. This resulted to the MOES expanding TVET teachers training capacity to some selected TVET institutions, 9 in total but only 7 in operation. As planned, a total of 600 new teachers were to be trained each year during the next five years and the MOES, with ready and allocated appropriate resources based on a yearly plan and curricula submitted by schools approved by MOES (Sisoulath 2012).

In-service training or study programmes have been conducted for TVET directors, officers and teachers in a range of TVET areas, with duration ranging from one day to one year, either in Lao PDR or abroad. Currently, the VEDC and some major TVET schools conduct in-service training for TVET teachers, covering the areas of pedagogy and technical fields.

A number of major issues of TVET teachers need be addressed by the system, including lack of coordination among providers, low qualification of teachers, lack relevant pedagogical preparation, limited movement and low salary (see Table 4).

Table 4: Lao PDR’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations.

2.5 TVET teacher education in Malaysia

The main government agencies involved in TVET teachers training are Ministry of Education (MoE) and Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE), which were merged into one as MoE, Ministry of Human Resources (MoHR), Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS) and Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA). The aspects of qualification and quality of the TVE training have become issues in teacher training in the country. It is expected that by the year 2020 all teachers must possess a first degree before they can join the teaching profession to ensure all teachers pass the ‘quality criteria’ before leaving the training institute (Hassan et al. 2012). Figure 5 shows common approaches to TVET teacher education in Malaysia.

Figure 5: Vocational Teacher and Instructor Education and Training in Malaysia (Source: Hassan 2012)

As shared during the Experts Meeting in 2012, Hassan observed that current governance structure still lacks coordination, sharing of resources, and articulation within the overall system, thus reflecting inefficiency in the system. There is also no single oversight body to provide overview of TVET landscape. Four policies have been introduced to enhance access to quality TVET in Malaysia: (a) improving the perception of TVET and attracting more trainees; (b) upgrading and harmonising TVET curriculum quality in line with industry requirements by initiatives which include standardising TVET curriculum, recognising the national skills qualification, and establishing a new Malaysian Board of technologists; (c) developing highly effective instructors, including the establishment of a new Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skills Training; and (d) streamlining the delivery of TVET, including a review of the current funding approach of TVET and to undertake performance ratings of TVET institutions (Hasan 2012).

There is a need for Malaysia to have new National TVET-Teacher Qualification Standards and training policies in conjunction with the transformation of the vocational education system. Hassan also highlighted the need to strengthen the skills accreditation programmes in order for the new models of TVET teachers to fulfil high standards of teacher’s quality and market needs (see Table 5 for more information about current policies, issues, strategies, and recommendations).

Table 5: Malaysia’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations.

2.6 TVET teacher education in Myanmar

TVET as subjects are first introduced in vocational schools, technical high schools or agricultural high schools. At post-secondary level, a wide range of TVET courses are offered under the Ministry of Industry. There are also non-formal TVET programs under the coordination of the Myanmar Educational Research Bureau (MERB). The non-formal TVET courses provide selected types of learning to sub-groups in the population such as handicapped persons, rural populations, school drop-outs and out-of-school youth, and unemployed or underprivileged youth. These programmes are offered by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and international organisations (UNESCO UNEVOC 2014b).

At present, there are thirty-two Technological Universities, three Government Technological Colleges, eleven Government Technical Institutes and thirty-six Government Technical High School in Myanmar offering TVET to students to study and continue to the higher education in many skilled-based programmes, which are highly relevant for national development (Tun 2012).

In Myanmar, the Ministry of Science and Technology through the Department of Technical and Vocational Education (DTVE) is responsible for planning and management of Technical and Vocational Education. DTVE also in charge of preparing highly qualified and proficient teachers and administers vocational schools, technical high schools and agricultural high schools (UNESCO UNEVOC 2014b).

The country has two TVET teacher training centres under the Ministry of Science and Technology that train and produce competent technical teachers to become knowledgeable and skilful in their respective technical and engineering fields. In addition, there are three TVET Teacher Training Centres under the Ministry of Labour and six TVET Teacher Training Centres under the Ministry of Industry (UNESCO UNEVOC 2014b). (See Figure 6 for more illustration on TVET teacher education in Myanmar). Between 1988 and 2010, teachers were recruited from students who passed the matriculation examination and contracted for serving as teachers in technical institutes.

Figure 6: Vocational Teacher and Instructor Education and Training in Myanmar. (Source: Tun 2012, UNESCO UNEVOC 2014b)

At present TVET policy is focused more on TVT reform, especially on Technical and Vocational Education for Youth Employment and the establishment of a training concept. A few issues and challenges that the country still faces in regards to TVET are, inter alia, (a) mismatch between demand and supply, (b) lack of adequate industry participation, (c) insufficient number of trainers, (d) inadequate vocational training infrastructure, (e) low employment outcome of graduates, and (f) lack of a tripartite (government, employer and worker) collaboration. (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2014b). Tun (2012) highlighted TVET policies, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations that can be seen in Table 6.

Table 6: Myanmar’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations (Tun 2012)

2.7 TVET teacher education in Singapore

Under the Ministry of Education Singapore, the Institute of Technical Education (ITE) and polytechnics are the major suppliers of skilled labour force in Singapore. The Ministry of Manpower, i.e. the Singapore Workforce Development Agency offers continuing education and training which is industry-based and is accessible to working adults. For this paper, the author only focused on the TVET teacher education in ITE.

ITE is a principal provider of career and technical education at the technician and associate professional level and a key developer of national occupational skills certification and standards in the country. ITE adopts practice-based, hands-on experiential learning, which is different from that of mainstream schools and other tertiary institutions in Singapore. This strategy suits its students who learn well by doing. ITE uses the “teachers have to know and be able to do” philosophy in training the teachers for the institute’s needs (Ng 2012).

To cater to this unique pedagogic need of its teaching staff, ITE has since 1981 provided its own teacher education which emphasizes competence-based, practice-oriented teaching complemented by on-the-job mentoring and supervision by experienced teachers, an approach adapted from Germany. See Figure 7 for current model of TVET teacher education in ITE Singapore.

Figure 7: Vocational Teacher and Instructor Education and Training in ITE Singapore (Source: Ng 2012) 

Key issues and challenges relating to the implementation and outcomes include the use of the CBC model of learning – applicable in authentic learning environments, the introduction of 3-level vocational pedagogy framework (TPCK) and, the capability to systematically and progressively develop its TVET teachers towards teaching excellence via professional pedagogic development and communities of practice. The summary of TVET teacher policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations identified by Ng (2012) can be seen in Table 7.

Figure 8: Vocational Pedagogy in ITE Singapore (Source: Ng 2012)

Table 7: ITE current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations (Ng 2012)

2.8 TVET teacher education in Thailand

Thailand also experienced a lack of quantity and quality of technical and vocational teachers. The Office of Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) Thailand launched various programmes for improving vocational teachers, such as inviting foreign experts to be facilitators for foreign languages and occupational courses, improving learning management using project- or problem-based learning (PsBL), improving teachers’ occupational skills, working on research for developing instructional media “The Innovative Logistics Professional’s Training for Border Trade with the Greater MEKONG Sub-region”, strengthening TVET networking with other organizations in both public and private sectors, and expanding overseas partnerships (Sriboonma 2012).

According to Songthanapitak (2013), a Delphi study on policy reform found that it was necessary (1) to standardize production and development systems of vocational teachers and workplace trainers, in terms of qualification frameworks at national and regional levels and (2) to establish a system of laws and regulations to enforce efficiencies of vocational teacher education (VTE) production and development.

The aims of these policies are(1) to reform Vocational Teacher Education in Thailand according to demands of users and deal successfully with economic, social and political changes, (2) to develop vocational teacher students, vocational teachers, workplace trainers and university lecturers to be competent and provide work experiences tuned to the demands of users, (3) to increase efficiency of educational administration by organizational structure, decentralization, national and international standardization, mobilization of resources and effective models of management.

Organisational structural reform, includes (1) the production and development of vocational teachers can be operated under one organization with international collaboration, thus the country can produce competent vocational teachers and workplace trainers without expanding the number of institutions and campuses and, (2) the idea that the private or industrial sectors should be the main bodies responsible for the production of vocational teachers and workplace trainers.

Under curriculum reform, it includes policies (1) to develop selection processes for qualified vocational teacher students which recruit competent candidates, (2) to increase incentives to attract candidates, (3) to standardize vocational teacher education system in all fields according to National Qualification Framework for Vocational Education, (4) to develop VTE programs as competency-based and modular curricula with Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) and credit bank. Balance of theories, field practices and practical work must be considered.

Under learning reform, the aims are to (1) accelerate the development of essential life skills, (2) to integrate learning management to develop skills and attain excellence in a particular field for each teacher student. Alongside these schemes there are also strategies to enhance required competencies of vocational teacher students such, as awareness of safety, entrepreneurship, green jobs and green technologies and, to collaborate practical learning with the workplace to carry out dual education or cooperative education.

Under management reform, it was proposed (1) to organize a national committee or an organization, (2) to establish networks for Vocational Teacher Education that connect to Cluster of Vocational Education, (3) to improve laws and incentive system in order to motivate entrepreneurs to cooperate with VTE institutions, and (4) that VTE institutions identify areas of excellence and their own expertise as well as design new management models with a specified Key Performance Indicator (KPI) to be used for continuous assessment and development.

For continuous professional development for teacher trainers or faculty staff, they should be encouraged to refresh knowledge and skills in industries with high standard and up-to-date technologies. Tax reduction can be used as a scheme to attract the private sector as well as awarding grants to lecturers in research on learning management as well as innovations.

To develop vocational teachers, the government should issue laws permitting vocational teachers to be trained at industries according to the needs of teachers and institutions and to recruit industries with modern technologies as networks for developing competencies of vocational teachers and workplace trainers by providing tax levy. In order to develop a proper teaching profession, the government should (1) set up Professional Standards of vocational teachers in terms of educational science, knowledge application, particular legal professional organization for issuing of teaching licenses, (2) establish frameworks of competency-based standards for vocational teachers and workplace trainers at ASEAN regional and international level, and (3) VTE institutions must be assessed, certified and registered, and (4) issue regulations concerning remuneration system and career path of vocational teachers, similar to those in industry.

Based on the expert meeting in 2012, the country expert from Thailand shared the following TVET teacher policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations; see in Table 8.

TVET teaching in Thailand is offered at universities, teacher training colleges and specialized colleges in the areas of physical education, vocational education, technical education, and agricultural education. These institutions prepare TVET teachers by providing both technical/vocational (occupational) and pedagogical courses concurrently or spread out during the programme. For an illustration, see Figure 9.

Table 8: Thailand’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations

2.9 TVET teacher education in Vietnam

The Vietnamese government has committed to make changes in the education and training system to develop the skills, attitudes and intellectual capacity needed to build an adaptable and competitive workforce (Hai 2012). Hai further explained that the Education Development Strategic Plan focuses on education management and teacher development as two main factors for education development.

Improvement in teacher training is focused on standardizing and upgrading teacher qualifications and training institution capacity and on adapting training and teacher support to the new curricula and methodologies (Huang, 2005 as cited in Hai, 2012). In addition, there is a concerted effort to upgrade the capacity and qualifications of teachers, teacher trainers, and Teacher Training Institutes (TTIs) as well as in-service training to introduce the new student curricula and methodologies to teachers (Hai 2012).

Figure 9: Vocational Teacher and Instructor Education and Training in Thailand (Source: Sriboonma 2012; Songthanapitak 2013) 

Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) is mandated to provide a pre-service training curriculum framework that specifies contents and duration of required coursework. The framework includes the number of credit hours for general education, professional education and practice teaching. Pre-service training is provided by universities. However, there are no universities that provide a direct programme for TVET teachers. Those who intend to become TVET teachers must graduate from a university and take pedagogical courses (Hai 2012).

In-service training is offered through the teacher training institutions under MOET or under MOLISA (Ministry of Labor, Invalids, and Social Affairs). In-service training is often held on Saturdays and during the summer. Like pre-service training, it is regulated by MOET. MOLISA recruits professional/skilled industry engineers and employees with professional knowledge and experiences to be teachers and instructors. Education Training Units (ETUs) offer continuing education for TVET teachers in vocational pedagogy and occupational skills. See illustration in Figure 10.

The current challenges and issues that the Vietnamese vocational education teachers are facing include the followings: that education should be made a national and leading policy; that the quality of TVE teacher education is low compared to those in the region and that the TVE teachers’ salary is considered average locally but rather low compared to those in the region; there is no professional development plan for those taking up the pre- and in-service training schemes; the teaching equipment or aids are insufficient and out of date; there are too many industries to cater for while there are no specific training programmes for TVE teachers.

Figure 10: Vocational Teacher and Instructor Education and Training in Vietnam (Source: Hai 2012)

To address the issue, Hai (2012) suggested the following initiatives: the development of indicators and evidences for TVE standards, as well assessment tools that would help VTE teachers to do self-assessment against professional standards; the development of a quality assurance framework and, to conduct research on training needs and development of training materials. To provide a summary of the current TVET teacher education policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations based on the expert’s country report from Vietnam, see Table 9.

Table 9: Vietnam’s current TVET policies and practices, issues and challenges, strategies, and recommendations (Hai 2012)

3 Synthesis of TVET teacher education in selected Southeast Asian countries

There are many factors affecting TVET teacher education, among others are organisational change, technological development, reform and changing political priorities, internationalisation, labour market development, cultural changes, changing paradigm of learning, and new target groups (Lipsmeier 2013). Taking these factors into consideration, TVET teacher education in Southeast Asian region is also changing and each country under study is unique due to their different environments.

Regardless of the diversity of TVET teacher education in the SEAMEO member countries, there are two salient modes of preparing TVET teachers in the participating countries: through universities and through open recruitment of experienced members of the workforce or practitioners. Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam under MOET prepare their TVET teachers primarily through university or training institutes. In these countries most of the TVET teachers are recruited from fresh graduates and many of them are lacking of industrial exposure. Industrial training or exposure that offers a combination of hands-on practice and good pedagogical knowledge, technical know-how and real working environment is needed. This will provide trainee teachers with authentic, relevant and current learning experiences, which has been addressed in some countries. Singapore recruits its TVET teachers from the candidates who have strong technical and vocational skills background regardless of the minimal pedagogical skills they have. After being recruited, the successful candidates will go through pedagogical training and mentoring provided by the TVET institution, not by a university. This model has attracted policymakers from Brunei and this will likely be the preferred model for recruiting and preparing their teachers.

Lipsmeier (2013) explained that within the first mode (TVET teacher education through university education), it can be categorized again into two: concurrent and consecutive models. The concurrent model represents three areas of competences to be learnt by pre-service teachers in parallel: main subjects (vocational disciplines), vocational pedagogy, and vocational skills. This model is very similar to the practices in many SEAMEO member countries where TVET teacher education is offered at a university (normal universities in China and Philippines). The consecutive model represents bachelor’s degree in technical or vocational discipline followed by vocational pedagogy. This is similar to those teachers recruited from non-education universities (learning only engineering or vocational courses), but they have to take pedagogy lessons afterward.

As TVET programmes are industry-based and industry-competencies-orientated, it is necessary therefore, for TVET teachers to have the right set of competencies and right work environment when delivering technical and vocationally- oriented programmes so that the students are provided with the right set of skills and knowledge required by the industries.

Referring to ASEAN Community 2015, we expect that these sets of vocational and technical skills and knowledge that the TVE teachers are being given should also be relevant not just to the needs of a particular country, but if possible, applicable across the region. The setting up of a regional TVET standard and qualifications reference framework will help address the issue of TVET teacher competency and mobility across the region.

Further, the importance of cooperation between training institutions and industry cannot be over-emphasized; therefore, dialogue between them on activities such as curriculum development, revision and programme delivery should be held regularly to ensure programme relevance and currency to the industry needs.

4 Recommendations

To ensure that TVET teacher education programmes are relevant to the needs of the industries, there is a need to provide the TVET teachers with industrial experience according to the specific country requirements. Developing linkages with the industries during initial teacher preparation programme is needed, with specific emphasis on the unique nature of TVET and the realities of the world of work, and with less emphasis on the attaining higher academic degrees. A programme that is more relevant and applicable to knowledge and skills in terms of changing technology and working practices. Realising the importance of industrial experience, Lipsmeier (2013) stressed the importance of industrial experience for all TVET teachers by suggesting any of the following options: (a) 2-3 years full traineeship before becoming a teacher, (b) 6-9 months internship before becoming a teacher, (c) internship in industry while working as a teacher, (d) internship in production school, (e) internship in research institutions, or (f) internship in industry with sophisticated labour organisation.

Lipsmeier further emphasized that internship is not an industry visit but trainees should submit a report and document their learning process. He also noted that in Germany TVET courses are taught by teachers and instructors. Teachers teach academic subjects whereas instructors with industrial experiences teach practical competencies.

To keep abreast with the fast changing technology, there is also a need to modify and develop competency-based curriculum for teacher training to be more responsive to the current trends of TVET and various industry requirements. In addition to practical and hands-on industrial exposure of TVET teachers, there is also a requirement for constant and regular staff-capacity building, provision of training programmes in the development and upgrading of teaching aids and materials, taking into consideration the provision of adequate and up-to-date TVET equipment and facilities according to the training needs of workshops and laboratories. To cater for the needs of the 21st century skills required by the industries, and to keep abreast with technology, TVET teaching environment should be equipped with new technology and improved internet connectivity, as this will make them aware of the new trends in teaching and technology across the region and beyond.

To answer the issue on the demand and supply of quality TVET teachers, there is a need for the TVET across Southeast Asia to come up with a policy that focuses on access to quality TVET teacher education. The creation of database of TVET experts in each member of SEAMEO will be useful source to find quality TVET teachers.

In addition, the call to develop an internationally accepted TVET teacher education standard framework for the region, such as the introduction of ASEAN TVET Quality Assurance and Qualification Reference Framework will ease the issue of TVET teachers’ mobility across the region as all TVET teachers would have met the same standard and quality for TVET teaching.

Other areas highlighted that need consideration are the need for a platform for the TVET teachers to voice their concerns, e.g. through the Southeast Asia Vocational Education Research Network (SEAVERN), Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP) that recently helped the initiation of Regional Association of Vocational Teacher Education in Southeast and East Asia (RAVTE), and Regional Cooperation of TVET (RECOVET). The introduction of the concept of greening TVET using e-learning and radio-learning teaching programs, and the introduction of a community of practice as a sort of model for continuous professional development, are some of the initiatives that are worth sharing.

There is a need to enhance pedagogical education with more distinctive nature of TVET or called TVET pedagogy by considering authentic teaching-learning whereby real industry working environment can be replicated in a school setting or by providing more opportunities to collaborate and utilize the workplace as a learning venue. Using a competency-based model and incorporating project and problem-based learning are timely now as the demand from industry for technical skills and transferable or employability skills is becoming more obvious and stringent. The adoption of vocational pedagogy coupled by the use of technology and 21^st century skills, such as in PTCK Model in ITE Singapore is worth considering. In the area student assessment, considering the complexity of individual students and fast changing technology and industry demand, considering holistic and authentic assessment is advisable and appropriate in this era. This can be done by utilizing various assessment tools such as rubrics, portfolio assessment, and performance-based assessment where learning outcome becomes the focus of the assessment.

With concerted effort, support and collaboration from the various governing bodies of the Southeast Asian member-countries, various industries, and international organisations, it is envisaged that the TVET teacher education in Southeast Asia will catapult to a much higher level, benefitting various stakeholders of the TVET system across the region and beyond.

References

Chin, W. K. (2012). TVET Teacher Education in Brunei Darussalam: Transformation and Challenges. A country paper presented during the Experts Meeting organised by SEAMEO VOCTECH and UNESCO-UNEVOC in Conjunction with International Conference on The Excellence in Teacher Education and Research Innovation by Rajabhat Universities Network, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-28 December 2012.

Chin, W. K. (2014). The Transformation of Vocational and Technical Education in Brunei Darussalam. A country paper presented during the 25th SEAMEO VOCTECH Governing Board Meeting, 23-25 September 2014, ITE Singapore.

Hai, N. H. (2012). The Technical and Vocational Teacher Development in Vietnam: Issues and Solutions. A country paper presented during the Experts Meeting organised by SEAMEO VOCTECH and UNESCO-UNEVOC in Conjunction with International Conference on The Excellence in Teacher Education and Research Innovation by Rajabhat Universities Network, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-28 December 2012.

Hanafi, I. (2012). Teacher Certification Program in Indonesia: An Effort in Realizing a Qualified Vocational Education. A country paper presented during the Experts Meeting organised by SEAMEO VOCTECH and UNESCO-UNEVOC in Conjunction with International Conference on The Excellence in Teacher Education and Research Innovation by Rajabhat Universities Network, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-28 December 2012.

Hassan, R., Razzaly, W., & Alias, M. (2012). Technical and Vocational Education Teachers in Malaysia. A country paper presented during the Experts Meeting organised by SEAMEO VOCTECH and UNESCO-UNEVOC in Conjunction with International Conference on The Excellence in Teacher Education and Research Innovation by Rajabhat Universities Network, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-28 December 2012.

Huang, S. S. (2005). Viet Nam: Learning to teach in knowledge society. Working paper No. 2005-03. World Bank, Washington, D.C. Online: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/main?menuPK=64187510&pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&entityID=000090341_20061212161346 (retrieved 20.12.2008).

Khemarin, C. (2012). TVET Teacher Education in Cambodia. A country paper presented during the Experts Meeting organised by SEAMEO VOCTECH and UNESCO-UNEVOC in Conjunction with International Conference on The Excellence in Teacher Education and Research Innovation by Rajabhat Universities Network, Bangkok, Thailand, 25-28 December 2012.

Lipsmeier, A. (2013). Approaches towards enhanced Praxis-Orientation in Vocational Teacher Education. A paper presented during Regional Conference on Vocational Teacher Education. Tongji University, Shanghai, China, 24-25 October 2013.

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Citation

Paryono, P. (2015). Approaches to preparing TVET teachers and instructors in ASEAN member countries. In: TVET@Asia, issue 5, 1-27. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue5/paryono_tvet5.pdf (retrieved 23.7.2015).

In Brunei Darussalam, transferable skills are called life skills (previously known as common skills). These skills have been integrated in the technical and vocational education and training (TVET) system for more than 12 years. This article explains the status of their implementation (perception among stakeholders and the approach taken to integrating these skills in teaching and learning) based on document analysis and interviews with 25 administrators, teachers, curriculum developers, government officials and experts. The interviews explored respondents’ involvement in, and experience of, integrating transferable skills in TVET according to their respective roles. Using content analysis, this article highlights key findings which respond to research questions on the current status of implementation, remaining issues and challenges, and areas for improvement in the field of transferable skills.

1 Introduction

1.1  Background, definitions and scope

In Brunei Darussalam, transferable skills are known as life skills (previously called common skills) and have been implemented in TVET for more than 12 years. The Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council (BDTVEC) Guide on Life Skills Implementation and General Teaching Practice (2012) states that “life skills are defined as personal management and social skills which are necessary for adequate functioning on an independent basis” (2).

The guidelines state that life skills consist of eight components:

(1) Self-management,
(2) Planning and organising,
(3) Communication,
(4) Working with others,
(5) Problem-solving,
(6) Initiative and enterprising,
(7) Applying numeracy, design and technology Skills, and
(8) Learning.

 In addition, life skills also include attitudes and values as listed in Table 1.

 Table 1: List of attitudes and values included in life skills

In fact, life skills are considered to be general and work skills that are applicable and transferable in different vocational and social environments. For example, communication skills are needed in all social interaction but at the same time they are essential in any work environment.

1.2 Transferable skills in policy context

As a nation, Brunei Darussalam has its defined values. The Sultan stated in the titah (official royal address) on 23^rd Feb 2003 that “national education should provide a dynamic, forward looking programme of knowledge and skills required by the industry and service sector without ignoring values”. In Brunei, values refer to values as defined by Malay Islamic monarchy (Melayu Islam Baraja or MIB) which are universal and can enable young people to develop their identities and self-image in a way that allows them to live harmoniously, be competitive and positively contribute to society in the context of globalization.

The Ministry of Education (MOE) in its statement entitled “Quality Education Towards a Developed, Peaceful and Prosperous Nation” and in its mission statement (which is “to provide holistic education to achieve everyone’s fullest potential”), transferable skills are linked to holistic education. MOE’s strategic plan further states that in order to improve teaching and learning in schools, holistic development of the individual must be given importance. In this context, holistic means the teaching of spiritual, moral, social and cultural attitudes and values.

The new education system (SPN2) aims to develop students’ knowledge and understanding, essential skills, attitudes and values to ensure their holistic development.  To simplify and to easily memorize it, MOE uses the following formula:

 SPN21 = Knowledge & Understanding + Essential Skills + Attitudes & Values  

1)   Knowledge and understanding are covered in content-based subjects;

2)   Essential skills when combined with relevant knowledge and the teaching of attitudes and values will provide the basis for lifelong learning and employability for a challenging future.

• Essential skills include:
• Communication skills,
• Numeracy skills,
• ICT skills,
• Thinking and problem-solving skills,
• Self-management skills and competitiveness,
• Study and work skills,
• Social skills,
• Physical skills,
• Sense of aesthetics.

3)      Attitudes and values are:

• Self-confidence and self-esteem,
• Empathy and the ability to appreciate,
• Self-reliance and independence,
• Tolerance and mutual respect,
• Caring, concern and sensitivity
• Integrity,
• Patriotism,
• Piousness,
• Competitiveness,
• Pro-activeness, and
• Vigilance.

The above shows that the concept of transferable skills is already incorporated in the vision, mission and strategic planning of the Ministry of Education in Brunei Darussalam.

1.3 Implementation guidelines for transferable skills

According to the guide published by the Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council (BDTVEC), Brunei Darussalam’s policy and strategy for integrating transferable skill in TVET is similar to that of Australia (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2006). Both countries identified eight components as transferable. (see Table 2)

Table 2: Transferable skills in Australia and Brunei Darussalam

The only difference can be found in item 8, e.g. both countries include technology as a component of transferable skills. However, in Brunei this component also contains numeracy and design.

In general, skills in Brunei are divided into three types, e.g. (1) foundation skill, (2) technical and vocational skills and (3) transferable skills. This concept is similar to that outlined in the Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report 2012. In Brunei, foundation skills, e.g. numeracy and literacy skills, are taught at primary and secondary levels and are prerequisite for entering vocational and technical institutes. Technical and vocational skills are taught in vocational and technical institutions (VTIs) together with transferable skills which are embedded in the course content.

Transferable skills are also incorporated in the school curriculum which clearly defines each component, e.g. self-management, planning and organizing, communicating, working with others, and problem-solving. In addition, students should develop initiative and enterprising, numeracy, the ability to design, and apply technology and learning skills.

The following is a description of each component as stated in the curriculum:

• Self-management: Students are able to recognize their own strength and weaknesses and find ways to improve their performance. It also helps students to manage their time professionally and effectively.
• Planning and organising: Students are able to plan, organize and perform tasks safely and in a way which is considered correct.
• Communicating: Students are able to listen, speak, read and write, use non-verbal communication and visual techniques to receive and present information effectively.
• Working with others: Students are able to interact and work in teams with their peers, and develop mutual respect for each other.
• Problem solving: Students are able to identify problems and solve them in creative and innovative ways.
• Initiative and enterprising: Students are able to decide and act on their own without instruction, especially in difficult and challenging situations. It also helps students to develop their ability to find new and innovative solutions and decide on the best way to solve a problem.
• Applying numeracy, design and technology skills: Students are able to use numeracy, design and technology skills to prepare and implement tasks.
• Learning: Students have the ability of lifelong learning, e.g. an ongoing process of learning in order to bring about overall self-improvement.

2 Interview findings

2.1 Transferable skills in TVET teacher education: perspectives from teacher trainers

The following are quotes from a lecturer at a university in Brunei Darussalam where TVET teacher education is being offered. It shows that the lecturer integrates transferable skills in the teaching and learning process.

“I try to provide learning opportunities for teacher candidates by giving them the opportunity to develop their creative thinking skills, collaborative skills and innovative skills through in my classes.  These skills, I believe, are transferable skills, or as others call them ‘21st century skills’”.

“Thus, teacher candidates are encouraged to design and implement learning opportunities for their students that develop students’ higher order and critical thinking skills. These are needed to solve problems which are related to the real world of work.”

In assessment, lecturers also incorporate transferable skills by using holistic assessment through rubrics. By using rubrics, important components of transferable skills are monitored using a checklist that reflects the level of mastery (or integration) with clear descriptors explaining each level.  Rubrics are self-explanatory and can therefore be used for self-assessment, peer-assessment or for assessment by teachers or industry supervisors.

To ensure a student-centred approach, the aforementioned university that offers pre- and in-service teacher training, places or attaches students (future teachers) to TVET institutions and uses the school mentor model. Thereby, students are mentored by their university lecturers and by the TVET teachers. Based on an interview with a university lecturer, the university recognises that transferable skills are equally important as technical skills for preparing graduates for employment. It is therefore mandatory for students of teacher education to pass the transferable skills unit before graduating.

2.2 Transferable skills in TVET: Perspectives from policy makers, government officials and administrators

At the national level, transferable skills are considered very important. The initiative to introduce transferable skills dates back to early 2000 when MOE collaborated with Microsoft Brunei on a program called P21. As part of this initiative, MOE planned to integrate the teaching of transferable skills in primary, secondary and technical schools. These skills are not only important for students’ future careers but also for the nation to develop according to national aspirations. This sentiment was reflected in an interview with a representative of a TVET quality assurance body:

“Transferable skills are very valuable for everybody, not just for students but also adults, not only for work but also everyday life. They are also important for the economic development of a country. If we want to have dynamic and sustainable economic development, we need a labour force that is adaptable to changes, at personal and organisational levels. We are, basically, trying to impart transferable skills through giving students’ an understating of the transferable skills concept and by opening their minds to be able to adapt to different work environments.”

To promote transferable skills, TVET must be conducted in an environment conducive to nurturing these skills. Such an environment can only be created through a holistic approach at both national and school levels. That sentiment was expressed by a policy maker who stated that “the whole TVET system must convey the same message: ‘Transferable skills are very important’”. To acknowledge the importance of transferable sills, another policy maker suggested that these skills could be considered as a criteria for offering scholarships.

“That is why, we give ten credits for transferable skills and we make it compulsory for everybody to show that they acquired all eight transferable skills in order to obtain a degree. Hopefully, in the future, government scholarships will require technical students, and even students at secondary level, to be introduced to what is called ‘aesthetic skills’. This requirement should be a prerequisite for awarding scholarships because students need transferable skills if they are to live overseas”.

One policy maker suggested broadening the scope of transferable skills by encouraging students to explore and expand these skills inside and outside of school. “Integration of transferable skills in the course content should not be restricted to the classroom. Any activity inside and outside the classroom should reflect transferable skills and the teacher should be a role model in their application.”

Given that most TVET teachers in Brunei are university graduates, many are lacking technical skills and industry experience. This, together with transferable skills, must be addressed holistically in teacher education, in recruitment processes, and through continuous capacity building for TVET teachers.

“The current teacher education policy is aimed at general education. Most of our TVET teachers have completed their study overseas and have limited experience and exposure to the industry. The current TVET teacher education programme focuses on pedagogical skills instead of technical skills.  This is to mean that it is very important for our future TVET teachers to have industrial experience. One way of ensuring this is by creating a new service scheme that allows us to recruit qualified and industry-experienced TVET teachers. The current scheme favours paper qualifications.”

There is need to highlight transferable skills in teacher training. “Besides teaching the technical side of the course, there is need to give “greater focus to transferable skills” so that in the practical training “they will have the content of transferable skills”. This arrangement could create incentive. 

The Regional Centre for Vocational and Technical Education and Training (SEAMEO VOCTECH) offers a programme entitled “Continuous Professional Development for TVET Teachers in Brunei” that addresses transferable skills by offering various training courses for teachers. Two examples include a course on transferable skills and the Authentic Teaching Learning and Assessment course.

According to the Centre’s Director:

“We are now offering training on Authentic Teaching Learning and Assessment or ATLAS for vocational and technical teachers in Brunei. We hope it will help them to learn how to create teaching and learning environments conducive for students to be more active, able to learn through the student-centred approach and have experience relevant to the industries. In Brunei, communication skills are still an issue for students. Improving these should start from the teachers.”

Another policy emphasized the need to assess students’ transferable skills. Given their importance and the effort invested in imparting them, adequate assessment must evaluate all eight transferable skill components.

“We realise the importance of transferable skills. That is why, we would like to create policies that ensure that these skills are reflected in certification and qualification processes.  Currently, we ensure that students have to pass courses on all eight transferable skills (as contained in the life skills framework) if they want a qualification recognised by the Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council (BDTVEC). We give credit for these courses that is why, we need assessment. If no credit is given, it might affect students’ perception of the importance of transferable skills. Even now that we emphasize the assessment of transferable skill there are cases that these skills are not adequately assessed.”

Assessment of transferable skills is important but challenging in TVET. Aspects of these skills should be integrated in assessment in a way that encourages both teachers and students to develop them and realise their value. As emphasised by an interviewee, assessment should be simple but, at the same time, reflect different competency levels.

“If students don’t pass the assessment of transferable skills, we don’t fail them but rather indicate that they have not yet developed them. These skills are embedded in all students. It is just a matter of time for them to realise they possess these skills and learn how to unfold them. We want students to be at least aware of the importance of transferable skills. Currently, students receive a grade transcript where all eight transferable skills are described. But it should also contain description of grading criteria instead of just stating ‘pass’, ‘merit’, ‘distinction’. However, at the moment, our teachers have problems putting such grading criteria down in words. They find it easier to grade by percentages and later translate these percentages into ‘pass’, ‘merit’ or ‘distinction’. Currently, we don’t descriptive criteria for each of these grades but having them would be the best option.”

The industry has also a role to play in assessing transferable skills, especially during the three months of industrial attachment which TVET students have to complete in Brunei.

“We require employers to assess ‘attached’ students. (Industry attachment lasted six months in the past but have now been reduced to three months). Employers assess transferable skills and produce a report stating whether performance was satisfactory. If so, results are combined with assessment of other skills and an average is calculated to determine the final grade.”

At the national level, the Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council (BDTVEC) is supported by its Professional Development Committee (PDC) that coordinates and oversees the integration of transferable skills in TVET. The members of the committee include deputy principals who monitor the implementation of transferable skills at school level. The committee also organises capacity building programmes on transferable skills for school personnel.

“PDC is led by a chair person and a co-coordinator with school deputy principals as official members. At the school level, the committee has also other members. PDC informed its members of requirements for setting up their own school- based transferable skills committees to conduct transferable skills training. In private schools, transferable skills programmes were established and guest speakers are being invited. Every Saturday, capacity building in transferable skills is being conducted. At the moment, it is up to the schools to give guidance and conduct monitoring of these activities. Furthermore, schools are required to submit assessment reports of all activities related to transferable skills.”

In fact, there are various ways of assessing transferable skills. The most common practice in Brunei is observation and demonstration. As highlighted by a policy maker, rubrics are also increasingly used to assess students’ e-portfolios to complement existing assessment methods.

“The use of e-portfolios can complement current assessment practices. At the beginning of the course, a student uses the e-portfolio to identify and record his/her life objectives in relation to his/her course. Throughout the school year, the student then assesses the transferable skills he/she learned through activities inside and outside of school. Finally, the portfolio is submitted to the student’s teacher.”   

2.3 Transferable skills in TVET: teachers’ perspectives

Findings are based on interviews with 19 teachers and will be presented in a table outlining the most common responses and with other findings shown in narratives and direct quotes. The following are teachers’ most common perceptions of the way transferable skills are integrated in TVET curriculum, teaching-learning processes and assessment, including the perceived support mechanisms.

Table 3:   Teachers’ perceptions of transferable skills

Note: Some teachers’ comments fall under more than one variable/category

In general, teachers had different perceptions when questioned about the integration of transferable skills in pedagogies and assessment. Most teachers confirmed that transferable skills are in some way integrated in the curriculum. Despite the fact that many teachers are still following teacher-centred approaches, there is also a move towards student-centred teaching, especially through the use of group work. However, most teachers reported that they lack a clear understanding of transferable skill assessment. More than a half of all respondents also expressed a need for more training on transferable skills. In terms of support in implementing transferable skills, most teachers reported a lack of support mechanisms or a lack of their effectiveness.

Based on the interviews, it can be said that many teachers are trying to incorporate transferable skills in their teaching regardless of their limited understanding of these skills.

“I think it would be better if we had hands-on training on how to integrate and assess transferable skills. Not just a brief seminar but a proper workshop to enable teachers to understand the processes. At the moment we don’t know how to teach and assess transferable skills and what to base it on.”

One respondent indicated that the implementation of common skills, the term used before ‘life skills’ (as used to refer to transferable skills in Brunei), was much better and admitted that their understanding of common skills clear. Other teachers felt that the guidelines should be provided for both teachers and students:

“It is important to provide students with guidelines and assessment criteria for improving their transferable skills. Teachers, on the other hand, need guidelines that will allow them to teach and lead students in acquiring practical skills”.

In fact, transferable skills are not clearly integrated in the curriculum in Brunei. Instead, guidelines (the Blue Book) have been developed to complement the curriculum. According to one teacher, “the national curriculum does not provide guidance on integrating transferable skills into pedagogies”. Another teacher confirmed this notion by stating that “transferable skills are not mentioned in the objectives of the curriculum, it focuses more on the subjects”.

Furthermore, “transferable skills as defined in the Blue Book put excessive expectations on students. Transferable skills should be implemented in a well-thought out manner not just stated on paper. Besides, there should be a form of student evaluation which measures their development and the transformation of their attitudes and habits.”

It seems that some teachers have developed their own way of “teaching” transferable skills using approaches that they choose autonomously. As a result, teaching and assessment of these skills seem subjective, according to one teacher:

“How can you tell if a student fails the communications skill component or all the eight of them?  How can you improve these skills? It’s very subjective. Different schools have different ways of grading or assessing. There is no conform way of assessment which is adequate and flexible enough. In fact, there is no right or wrong.“

Based on current practices, assessment of transferable skills is time consuming and teachers have to assess all eight transferable skill components (see Table 2) twice a year. The use of the e-portfolio is considered a very positive step in monitoring and assessment of transferable skills. In general, however, teachers call for more training, especially on the assessment of transferable skills. One teacher stated that:

“Most teachers need a clearer understanding of transferable skills assessment. It is difficult to assess transferable skills because of the marking. In comparison, there was no need for marking of “common skills” (the term used previously to refer to transferable skills), which were only checked.”

Other teachers confirmed that assessing transferable skills is difficult, especially components like enterprising and innovation. “Not all transferable skills components can be integrated in my teaching. But when assessing, I have to fill in information for all eight transferable skills components, so I end up filling the blanks for the sake of it and to ensure that the student passes”. Another teacher stated that “initiative and enterprising are not that easy to assess but a rubric and e-portfolios are used to assess these transferable skill components.”

In regards to assessment, some teachers find assessment difficult because of limited time. One teacher also expressed preference in using simple grades, instead of score.

“Assessing transferable skills should be more user-friendly. I prefer using grades instead of scores, like in the assessment of common skills where ‘distinction’, ‘merit’ or A, B, C, instead of percentages, were used.”

“I am not sure if the approaches used for assessing transferable skills are right or wrong. Currently, teachers just translate general scores into marks for transferable skills. For example, if a student gets 70% as the overall score, he/she will get a B for transferable skills. I’m not sure that this is the right way of assessing students’ transferable skills.”

3 Discussion

Regardless of some discrepancies between guidelines and implementation, there are some key points that need to be discussed and improved with regard to transferable skills. All respondents agreed that transferable skills are important and that there is need for clear guidelines for teacher training, both at national and at school levels. Current guidelines are perceived as very useful but insufficient in responding to various concerns expressed by TVET practitioners. For that reason, the TVET curriculum needs to be reviewed to respond to these concerns and to reflect skills needed as expressed by industries, including transferable skills. The TVET curriculum should encourage a self-directed approach and active development of competencies in work projects (UNESCO, 2013). Raising teachers’ awareness of existing guidelines and teachers’ understanding of their applicability would be helpful.

The current findings show different approaches to imparting transferable skills. Many teachers are shifting from teacher-centred to student-centred approaches by engaging students in classroom activities that encourage them to use critical thinking and higher-order thinking skills. The use of group activities that stimulate teamwork skills, and project-based and problem-based pedagogies are increasing. In addition, the role of a teacher is increasingly seen as that of a role model which is important considering that some transferable skills are imparted more effectively by example than traditional teaching. This development is in line with the approach promoted by UNESCO which is that transferable skills should not be taught using traditional teaching but through consultative and more student-centred approaches. Vocation-specific projects, work-related tasks facilitated in real-work conditions are some of the important approaches that teachers should consider (UNESCO, 2013). According to the Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning (2007), “teachers/lecturers/mentors need to be passionate, enthusiastic, knowledgeable, approachable and well organised in order to: (a) communicate to learners the importance of generic skills in the workplace; (b) help learners to acquire such generic skills; and (c) ensure that learners are then capable of transferring these skills to new contexts.” (p. 10). In that respect, conducive learning strategies include, among others, workplace-based projects, mini-companies (small scale companies run by educational institution for the purpose of providing learning experience), enquiry-based learning, learning based on problem solving, reflective learning and workplace practice (p.13).

The most challenging and frequently mentioned issues relate to monitoring and assessment of transferable skills. Most teachers expressed concern about their limited understanding of pedagogies and assessment conducive to transferable skills. The most common teaching techniques include observation and demonstration. Assessment is conducted through marking as outlined in the official guidelines. Despite their limited use, some teachers also mentioned e-portfolios and rubrics as assessment tools. As suggested by UNESCO (2013), assessment should be oriented towards TVET activities and the world of work. It must further be based on holistic, real or ideal working environments which reflect complex learning progresses to ensure that formal and informal learning can be equally assessed. According to the Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning (2007), there are four basic approaches to the assessment of generic employability skills (which are comparable with transferable skills) (a) assessment by teachers or assessors; (b) student portfolios; (c) work-based assessment; and (d) assessment using purpose-built instruments (a survey tool developed specifically for student assessment). In Brunei, the use of portfolios in TVET has arguably been successful in increasing the importance of transferable skills, creating useful information and thus enhancing student learning of these skills. Workplace assessment is also considered adequate for assessing transferable skills in TVET in Brunei (p.15-16). These approaches are recognized as appropriate but thee assessment of transferable skills remain a challenge.  

With regard to assessment, some teachers prefer using categorical scale (i.e. pass/fail, or excellent/good/average/ poor, or distinction/merit/distinction) instead of scores (i.e. 0 to 100). The importance of employers’ participation in transferable skills assessment was also emphasised by respondents. Nevertheless, assessment of transferable skills continues to be performed mainly by teachers. Curtis (2007) recommends the use of self-assessment by students whereby teachers validate students’ self-assessment. Furthermore, considering portfolios and work experience can provide valuable assessment evidence.  

The Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning (2007) suggests developing assessment systems that possess the following characteristics: (a) a clear and simple definition of the skills so that performance criteria and evidence guides are clear and easy to understand; (b) a set of clear guidelines for learners about what is required in order to achieve a successful assessment; (c) a mechanism for communicating the scope of transferable or generic skills to learners and employers; (d) a means of providing feedback to learners on their acquisition of employability skills; (e) a rich source of information about individual achievement, with supportive evidence; (f) an opportunity to undertake assessments that are authentic and occur within a work context or one that closely simulates it; (g) a summary of the performance of individuals that is readily apparent to employers; (h) a cost-effective means of collecting performance information, individually and at aggregate levels. (p.17)

4 Conclusions

Based on the aforementioned findings and discussions, it can be concluded that transferable skills have, to a certain degree, been integrated in the curriculum, pedagogies and assessment for the last 12 years in Brunei. Guidelines on transferable skills have been published in 2010 and are being used as reference by teachers in terms of rationale, definition, framework, list of transferable skills components, staff development, integration in the course content, monitoring and verifying transferable skills.

Nevertheless, there is still a mismatch between existing transferable skills guidelines and their implementation in TVET practice. Most teachers remain unclear about the way to integrate transferable skills in their teaching and adequate assessment methods. Existing support mechanisms, including the committee and guidelines, seem insufficient in assisting teachers to integrate transferable skills in their pedagogies.  Consequently, teaching of transferable skills should be further reinforced in teacher training and through adequate support mechanisms, both at national and school levels.

After conducting a national study on the implementation of transferable skills at classroom level, related policies and guidelines will need to be adjusted to address the findings. This continuous effort is necessary if students are to develop skills relevant to the labour market and to ensure their gainful employment after graduation.

5 Acknowledgments

The following individuals were involved in data collection, its transcription, and initial data analysis: Edward Dela Rosa, Cynthia Abdullah, Ashikin Nawe from SEAMEO VOCTECH, and Omarali Mujah, Norazlina Othman, Syazana Hj Ebil form the Department of Technical Education Brunei.

Note: *Paryono Paryono is seconded from the State University of Malang, Indonesia.

References

Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training (Ed.). (2006). Employability Skills. From Framework to Practice. An Introductory Guide for Trainers and Assessors. Melbourne. 

Brunei Darussalam Technical and Vocational Education Council (BDTVEC). (2012). BDTVEC Guide. Life Skills Implementation and General Teaching Practice. Ministry of Education Brunei Darussalam.

Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning. (2007). The Teaching, Learning and Assessment of Generic Employability Skills. The Centre for Developing and Evaluating Lifelong Learning at the University of Nottingham. http://www.marchmont.ac.uk/Documents/Projects/ges/ges-guide%5Boptimised%5D.pdf (retrieved in February 2014).

Curtis, D.D. (2007). Assessing employability skills: The case of problem solving. Centre for Lifelong Learning and Development and School of Education, Flinders University. http://www.avetra.org.au/abstracts_and_papers_2003/Curtis.pdf (retrieved in February 2014)

Ministry of Education Brunei Darussalam. (2012). The Ministry of Education Strategic Plan 2012-2017. Brunei Darussalam: Strategic Management Unit, Department of Planning, Development and Research.

UNESCO. (2013). Transferable Skills in TVET: A concept note. UNESCO-RCP Research Collaboration.

UNESCO (Ed.). (2012). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2012. Youth and Skills. Putting Education to Work. Summary. Paris. 

Citation

Paryono (2014). Transferable skills in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Brunei Darussalam. In: TVET@Asia, issue 3, 1-15. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue3/paryono_tvet3.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2014).

In anticipation of the ASEAN Integration, especially regarding the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) 2015 it is clear that many aspects have to be considered and integrated in technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Four major thrusts under AEC include a single market and production base, a highly competitive economic region, a region of equitable economic development, and a region fully integrated into the global economy (ASEAN Secretariat 2010). These thrusts encourage country members to collaborate in several areas. The areas that link closely to TVET, among others, are human resources development and capacity building, recognition of professional qualifications, and the integration of industries across the region to promote regional sourcing. SEAMEO VOCTECH as a regional centre for TVET in Southeast Asia plays an active role in addressing the three mentioned areas. This paper will highlight the centre’s roles and initiatives relevant to AEC 2015, especially in the areas of capability building programmes for TVET instructors and administrators, its engagement with partners in the mutual recognition arrangements, and initiative in arriving at TVET quality standards. This paper also shares TVET trends, issues and challenges based on the Training and Research Needs Analysis survey completed in 2013. These trends and issues help shape the centre’s programmes and services, especially in addressing the initiatives in response to the ASEAN Economic Community.  

1 Background

There are a few ASEAN initiatives that support regional integration. These initiatives support the three main pillars featuring socio, cultural, and economic integration. In line with the ASEAN Vision of 2020, the ASEAN Leaders decided to transform ASEAN into a stable, prosperous, and highly competitive region with equitable economic development, and reduced poverty and socio-economic disparities. In 2003, ASEAN Leaders declared that the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is to be the goal of regional economic integration. The establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community will incur transforming ASEAN into a region with free movement of goods, services, investment, skilled labour, and a freer flow of capital (ASEAN Secretariat 2010).

The AEC is to establish ASEAN as a single market and production-based, making ASEAN more dynamic and competitive with new mechanisms and measures to strengthen the implementation of its existing economic initiatives; accelerating regional integration in the priority sectors; facilitating movement of business personnel, skilled labour and talents; and strengthening the institutional mechanisms of ASEAN (ASEAN Secretariat 2010).

In facilitating the free flow of services by 2015, ASEAN is also working towards recognition of professional qualifications with a view to facilitating labour movement within the regions. One of the initiatives is facilitating harmonization and standardization.

In summary, there are Initiatives for ASEAN Integration (IAI) that relate to TVET. These include: (a) human resources development and capacity building (b) recognition of professional qualifications, and (c) integrating industries across the region to promote regional sourcing. This paper will elaborate SEAMEO VOCTECH’s relevant initiatives and other efforts made by other organisations or institutions that may help facilitate the above cooperation.

2 SEAMEO VOCTECH’s initiatives in response to human resources development and recognition of professional qualifications      

Every member of ASEAN regards human resources as its highest priority. As a regional centre SEAMEO VOCTECH, has been and will continue to offer capability building programmes to improve the quality of human resources by providing training for TVET instructors and administrators. The areas of training for in-service teachers and other education personnel will be linked to addressing the issues and challenges and be relevant to the current TVET trends and issues identified by the centre.

The centre identified the 10 most salient trends and issues related to TVET considered to be input for providing relevant services to the member countries. These trends and issues were identified, based on the Needs Analysis Survey conducted from December 2012 to February 2013. The survey was sent to 104 experts, policymakers, and SEAMEO VOCTECH Governing Board members. Among those surveys, 24 were completed and returned to the centre. The findings then to be discussed and shared in the 24^th SEAMEO VOCTECH’s Governing Board Meeting in Ha Long City, Vietnam. The final list of the trends and issues are (1) TVET quality assurance, (2) qualification framework, (3) relevancy of curriculum to incorporate green technology, employability skills including entrepreneurship and high order thinking skills, (4)articulation, (5) authentic teaching-learning and assessment, (6) ICT in TVET, (7) research and development, (8) access and equity, (9) lifelong learning, and (10) graduate employability (SEAMEO VOCTECH 2013) (see Figure 1). The details can be seen in the following pages.

The centre will continue to address the above trends and issues by offering relevant training programmes, continue conducting research studies to assist in the improvement of TVET in the member countries, and publish relevant reports and guidelines that can be used as references. For the training programmes, emphases have been placed on teachers and administrators and “soft” competencies, such as curriculum development, educational management, ICT, teaching and assessment, and research methodologies and project evaluation. In addressing the issue of lacking technical and vocational skills, the centre has begun initiating teaching technical skills training of TVET teachers in collaboration with partners.

In collaboration with its partners, the centre will facilitate dialogues among various stakeholders both with the individual country members or regionally. Of the many themes to be addressed high on the list will be the mutual recognition arrangements, TVET quality standards, mutual recognition arrangement (MRA), and competency standards development.

3 Identified trends and issues of TVET in Southeast Asia

The TVET trends and issues identified from the Training and Research Needs Analysis 2013 is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: TVET trends and issues in Southeast Asia

3.1 TVET Quality Assurance Framework

In preparation for AEC 2015, particularly on the growing mobility of students and workers, the SEAMEO member countries have been venturing into improving the connectivity of their TVET systems to support regional economic integration via cross-border investment and the mobility of skilled labour. Currently, these processes have striven towards mechanisms for improving cross-national connectivity, particularly regarding occupational standards and qualifications. The development of Regional TVET quality assurance and qualification frameworks serves to build connectivity among the various education and training modalities across the region.

One of the organisations spearheading the regional quality assurance framework is the East Asian Summit (EAS). The purposes of this proposed TVET QAF are to (1) enable countries to promote and monitor the improvement of their quality assurance systems; (2) facilitate cooperation and mutual understanding between member countries; and (3) support other initiatives within and across the region that enhance connectivity, integration, education and labour mobility, e.g. the ASEAN Regional Qualifications Framework. This is a coherent package capable of guiding the design and implementation of measures to strengthen quality assurance at the national level as well as providing a basis for alignment between national TVET quality assurance strategies (ASEAN 2012).

SEAMEO VOCTECH has been active in participating the meetings and workshops to finalise the draft of the plan. The response from most SEAMEO member countries has been very positive. Considering this framework is only for guidelines, each country may use it as a reference for adopting it.

3.2 National and regional qualification frameworks

National qualification frameworks are to be used as a means for promoting the development, implementing and facilitating of a transparent mechanism used in the assessment, certification, and recognition of skills. Regardless of the different levels of NQF, whether comprehensive or partial, most countries in the region, such as Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, and Cambodia have formulated their NQFs. Three countries in SEA: Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines have comprehensive NQFs that recognize any learning, regardless of the site (i.e. where the learning takes place), the form of provision (formal, informal, and non-formal), and the types of pedagogy and curriculum used. Other countries have “partial” NQFs whereby not all education and training qualifications are included in the framework. Some place emphasis on higher education while others emphasize TVET to a greater extent.

There have been several attempts by various organisations to develop an ASEAN Regional Qualification Framework in Southeast Asia. Many feel that an RQF will provide a reference point and translation grid for all qualifications throughout Southeast Asia and that it will benefit employers, education providers and job seekers to recognize qualifications issued within the region. Others feel that the RQF will only function if all member countries recognize its benefits and support its initiation and implementation whole-heartedly. Based on the current status, the development of a comprehensive ASEAN RQF still has a long way to go. To move forward, there is a need to identify major obstacles including reaching a mutual understanding between the “sending” and the “receiving” countries and identifying key players for the taskforce. It requires strong and long-lasting commitment by the participating countries and entails strong collaborations within and across ministries, and other stakeholders in the participating countries. Nevertheless, there have been significant steps towards an ASEAN RQF that will facilitate student and labour mobility in the region.

3.3 Relevancy of TVET curriculum

This is a prevalent and an on-going issue facing TVET institutions. Some issues of curriculum relevancy include the integration of high-order thinking skills, integration of employability skills, the inclusion of entrepreneurship education, and the adoption of green technology. 

Articulations

To create effective and efficient TVET systems, articulation among educational institution must be established. Articulations can be done horizontally and/or vertically. Horizontal articulation is done at the same level of education by recognizing or matriculating credits of courses from one school to the other, e.g. matriculating courses from secondary TVET institutions to secondary academic schools or vice versa, from postsecondary TVET institutions to postsecondary academic institutions or vice versa.

Vertical articulation is carried out between lower level TVET institutions to a higher level. This type of articulation is taking place in several countries in the region. To encourage students to enrol in TVET and avoid the repetition of courses, the approved courses and credits from the lower level of education can be transferred to the next education level according to matriculation mechanisms.

3.4 Teaching-learning and assessment

Teaching-learning and assessment are the core of TVET activities to be revisited and continuously improved. Authentic teaching-learning and assessment have been gaining popularity as this approach is believed to be relevant for TVET context. The term “authentic” implies that the teaching-learning and assessment should be as similar to the real working environment as possible i.e. real problems, practical solutions, real approaches of solving the problems, multi (holistic) ways of assessing students.

3.5 ICT in education

The trend regarding Information and Communication Technology will still be relevant for the next five years. As yet ICT has not been fully integrated into TVET. Much effort must be invested to continuously enhance ICT integration in education. The digital divide persists not only between countries but as a domestic problem also. Following the UNESCO framework of ICT integration whereby ICT integration is grouped into 4 stages: emerging, applying, infusing, and transforming; many countries in the region are still only at the emerging and applying stages.

3.6 Research and Development

For the member countries of SEAMEO and the region to continuously innovate and develop,  it is imperative that research and development activities are enhanced. Research activities should be proliferated particularly via networking and partnerships. More importantly, a platform should be constructed from which research findings can be shared through seminars, conferences, and publications, and most importantly via an online research database.

3.7 Access and Equality

To meet UNESCO’s millennium development goals, particularly regarding the Education for All agenda, all countries in the region are continuing to provide wider access to quality TVET. This access to TVET should be open to those who need it, regardless of their background. Through the use of ICT, TVET can be more accessible to many.

3.8 Life-long learning

Education, including TVET, should offer more flexibility to students and provide a strong foundation life-long learning. Likewise, there should be a mechanism to recognise prior learning regardless of whether the learning was acquired from a formal, non-formal or informal setting. The easy access to information through various media and the possibilities of carrying out jobs through various ways and means presents an open opportunity to individuals to learn continuously throughout their lives regardless of age. 

3.9 Graduate employability

The issue of graduate employment is still prevalent in most of the countries in the region. This may be caused by mismatched qualifications, the lacking employability of the graduates, and/ or lacking of job openings or information. There is a need to provide and improve career guidance for the students and trainees at an early stage and incorporate the necessary competencies for enhancing graduate employability in the teaching-learning processes. To address the unemployment issue, it is also vital the graduates have access to job information. This job information may cover the job openings at the local, national, or even at the regional/international level.

4 The way forward

Human resource development is the most crucial development agenda in every country, yet many countries still lack proper planning. One focus HRD planning is TVET, especially for the preparation of technicians and skilled employees. It is difficult to create a perfect balance between the supply and demand of a labour market that is to support the national economy. Most of the time, country planning is not in line with the society interest for the type and level of education and training. Some countries possess abundant low level skills workers but have an extreme lack in terms of a high level workforce; while others may have the opposite problem. A study has shown that the closer the proportion between the demand and supply of the labour force the better the country’s economic development, see Figure 2.

Figure 2: The links between vocational TVET, industry (employment) and economy (adapted  and modified from Ezzine 2012)

Three types of education and training occur in all countries, formal, informal and non-formal. In most cases, the link between these three types of education and training is not clear as there is no real system for recognizing prior learning. In TVET, in-formal and non-formal learning is still barely recognized which places the individual at an extreme disadvantage.  It is important to encourage lifelong learning by establishing training and testing centres that can provide avenues for every individual to upgrade their competencies and obtain certification regardless of where and how the skills were acquired. There is a need for articulation across various education and training levels and recognition of the certification for employment, and many countries in the region are still very lacking in meeting the requirements for this.

To be able to recognize candidate’s qualification, it is important to have clear competencies spelt out in the certification/credentials. These distinct competencies must also be accompanied by strong quality assurance, so that whatever listed competencies may be the certificate is an accurate reflection of the holder’s capabilities.

This should be followed by installing a framework that can be used as a reference for any qualifications – commonly termed a qualification framework. Many countries in the region have a national qualification framework, but not many have successfully implemented it. This is due to lack of recognition by employers or even the Ministry of Labour. Some NQFs are still fragmented reflecting only a part of the education and training level (e.g. excluding higher education) or type (excluding non-formal and in-formal education. The comprehensiveness of the qualification framework is needed to increase the usefulness of the framework which simultaneously benefits the candidates.

In anticipation of AEC, recognition of qualification across national border is needed. This should be facilitated by a regional framework or at least an agreed mutual recognition among the countries. Mutual recognitions in some professions have been implemented but remain limited to certain areas (surveying and mapping, construction, hospitality and tourism) and certain countries. It is still a long way from constructing a firm regional qualification framework or more comprehensive mutual recognition of professional qualifications which could very likely hinder or prolong the preparedness for implementing AEC by 2015.

The discrepancies of educational and training systems among ASEAN member countries may also form obstacles to the progress in establishing cross-national recognition of professional qualifications. Willingness and commitment among member countries, is ultimately necessary particularly at the implementing agency level.

There are plenty of initiatives under the auspices of the AEC, but no clear mechanism to monitor their implementation. A taskforce is needed to implement each of the agreed initiatives; without it all of it will remain only as plans.

References

ASEAN Secretariat (2010). ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint. ASEAN Jakarta. Online: http://aseansec.org/21083.pdf (retrieved 10.10.2013).

Ezzine, M. (2012). Promoting TVET as key tool for skills development and youth employability in the Arab region. A paper presented at TVET Expert Meeting in Oman.

SEAMEO VOCTECH (2013). Fifth Five-Year Development Plan. SEAMEO VOCTECH: Brunei Darussalam.

Citation

Paryono (2013). Anticipating ASEAN Economic Community 2015: Regional initiatives on human resources development and recognition of professional qualifications. In: TVET@Asia, issue 2, 1-8. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue2/paryono_tvet2.pdf (retrieved 30.12.2013).