This study aims to further develop research on the Tripartite Education System (TES) for Thailand and the ASEAN region. The collaboration between governmental agencies, industries and education institutions (universities, technical colleges) in a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) has proven to be of benefit in achieving a workforce able to cope with the challenges of the labour market in an Industry 4.0 environment. However, there is still debate on how to organize the PPP specifically. This essay gives some insights into three variants of the Thai School-in-Factory (SiF) model implemented at the Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, which will be called Collaboration A, Collaboration B and Collaboration C. The analyses are done by reviewing existing documents on the projects (such as Memorandums of Understanding), and the review will show similarities and differences in collaboration structure, elements and concepts, objectives, roles of educational institutes and industries, curriculum, and finally, criteria and processes for student selection. The three collaborations (A, B, and C) share similarities in collaboration structure, elements and objectives but differ in curriculum and student selection processes. Another difference lies in the process of selecting students to participate because Variant C does not include the participation responsibilities when the SiF was established. Despite these differences, all three collaborations involve the RMUTL acting as a facilitator between companies, educational institutions and the public. The findings of these comparative analyses will contribute to broadening the understanding of effective approaches while bridging the gap between academia and industry and preparing students for successful careers. Additionally, these analyses can be helpful as Thai best practices for the ASEAN region and especially the CLM countries.

Keywords: Tripartite Education System, School-in-Factory, Public-Private Partnership, Collaboration, Comparative TVET Research

1        Introduction

Vocational education encounters a challenge in how it traditionally readies people for jobs in the lower and middle skill levels. The specific problem arises from the decrease in medium-skilled jobs. While vocational education plays a role, it cannot solve this problem alone. This issue requires economic and social strategies implemented by governments and social partners (Wheelahan & Moodie 2016). Developed within the framework of the tripartite system and involving technical and vocational institutes, employers, and the government, Thailand’s dual education system aims to enhance its ability to cultivate a competitive workforce (Mongkhonvanit 2017).

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Thailand involves a collaborative effort among various stakeholders to ensure effective implementation and positive outcomes (OCED 2021, 108) Collaboration with TVET in Thailand typically involves the following three main partners. (1) The public sector: the Ministry of Education and relevant government bodies play a crucial role in setting policies, regulations, and standards for TVET. The collaboration among different public or government departments ensures a holistic approach to TVET, addressing various sectors and industries. (2) The educational sector: the collaboration between vocational schools, technical colleges, and universities helps create a seamless educational pathway for students. Establishing partnerships between educational institutions and industries is essential to aligning curriculum with industry needs. (3) The industry sector: collaboration with industry is vital for designing relevant and up-to-date curricula that meet the current demands of the job market. Moreover, industry-sponsored apprenticeships, internships and on-the-job training programs strengthen the connection between education and real-world applications (OCED 2021, 109).

However, the organizational structures and collaboration origin of the Tripartite Education System, within the Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna model (Moonpa et al. 2021), differ from (Mongkhonvanit 2017) in terms of partners. In the organizational structures and origin of the Tripartite Education System related to the the Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna model, collaboration is emphasized between the private and public sectors (partnership) and the education sectors (TVET College and University). This is achieved by establishing interconnected relationships, where the university, acting as the project manager and supporter, aligns the ideas and operations with the missions of each organization. This collaboration is evident through the Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) signed jointly from 2013 to 2018 and continues to the present. Challenges arising from the joint implementation include teaching and training learners to meet labour market demands, recruiting learners for employment in companies, aligning training with institutional regulations, establishing collaboration frameworks, communicating with partners, and other shared activities. Meanwhile, common problems include unclear communication and collaboration among partners, a lack of understanding of their roles and responsibilities, difficulties in supporting learners during training at companies with multiple locations, and a lack of social welfare. Despite these challenges, the government has opportunities to support the expansion of educational models, enhance mutual understanding and contribute to the country’s workforce development in a unified direction.

Proposing to enhance collaboration among vocational schools, businesses, and government agencies within the Tripartite system structure is crucial for establishing a resilient model for the Thai TVET learning system. However, in practice, this cooperative network is not implemented effectively (Permpoonwiwat & Chantith 2023).

The research on implemented collaboration between partnerships in Tripartite Education System provides insights into the perspectives, goals, responsibilities and relationships among organizations, particularly in developing the workforce to meet the specific needs of each partner. This study aims to find out the similarities and differences in three variants of School-in-Factory (SiF) in terms of collaboration structures, elements, concept and collaboration objectives, roles and responsibilities of each partner, curriculum, as well as the criteria /processes for student selection and participation. The following section will present some insights into collaboration. The first gives theoretical considerations and then the concrete collaboration in Thai’s TVET system. Section 3 describes the methodology used in analyzing the three variants of SiF, while Section 4 presents the research findings. From these results recommendations are derived for a cooperative TVET in Thailand and the wider ASEAN region.

2        Literature review

2.1       Collaboration theoretical

According to Chrislip and Larson (1994), Collaboration extends beyond communication, cooperation, and coordination. Its roots in Latin, “com” and “laborare,” signify “to work together.” It represents a mutually beneficial relationship among two or more parties, sharing responsibility, authority and accountability to achieve common goals. Collaboration goes beyond just sharing knowledge and information (communication) or assisting each party in reaching its own goals (cooperation and coordination). The primary purpose of collaboration is to create a shared vision and collaborative strategies to address concerns that surpass the scope of any individual party (Chrislip & Larson 1994, 5).

The character of collaboration differs in cooperation and coordination according to the 3C’s continuum. Collaboration is defined by strong and closely interconnected relationships. Participants understand that to achieve results, they must be willing to significantly change how they think, behave, and operate. Collaboration involves more than just making small adjustments; it requires transforming systems. This means participants are engaged in a challenging, high-risk and unpredictable environment that can produce outcomes quite different from the original intentions. Successful collaboration demands a high level of trust and extensive communication among participants. Although it involves risks, those willing to take them may find it highly rewarding. In a collaboration, the usual way of doing things (“business as usual”) is no longer sufficient. Participants must establish new connections and adopt new approaches to interact with each other (Keast & Mandell 2013; Gray 1989).

Collaboration is a challenging process, and its likelihood of success relies on several prerequisites: purpose, basic requirements, process and environment, as well as resources, rewards, commitments and responsibilities (Wolff 2005).The driving force is the anticipation of achieving outcomes that would be unattainable if the parties worked independently (Luis & Hamideh 2008).

2.2       TVET Education Collaboration in Thailand

The dual education system in Thailand was initiated in 1984 with support from the German government. The Siam Cement Group collaborated on the initial project for the Department of Vocational Education. In 1989, the Ministry of Education authorized a pilot curriculum in factory maintenance supported by Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (today GIZ). In 1991, dual systems were implemented at Minburi Technical College, Samut Songkhram Technical College, and Rayong Technical College. In 1992, the name of the educational management system, “School-Factory (Dual System)”, was changed to a system where students received a Skilled Worker Certificate upon graduation and were allowed to work in companies. Between 1995 and 1998, the context shifted towards the Dual Vocational System. The focus was on public relations to build understanding as well as the development of teachers, instructors in enterprises, and experts. In 2002, the Ministry of Education permitted apprenticeships for half of the students in the educational program. From 2008 until the present, Dual Vocational Education has been a form of technical and vocational education and training agreements between educational institutions and the private sector. In 2014, dual education was integrated into the national agenda to enhance the quality and quantity of technical and vocational education (Mongkhonvanit 2017; Dual Vocational Education Center 2017).

In 2014, a survey conducted by the SCB Economic Intelligence Centre among 222 companies in six key sectors in Thailand revealed that 53% of employers encountered difficulties filling job vacancies within three months (OECD 2020). The challenge is most pronounced when seeking workers with vocational degrees, with a shortfall of 23% of the total workers required. This hiring gap exceeds that of university graduates (14%) and individuals with a high school education or less (11%). Various factors contribute to employers’ difficulties filling vacancies, including high labour demand (56%) and a mismatch between available and required skills (47%) among Thai firms. An analysis of Thailand’s skills system by Chalapati and Chalapati (2020) confirms the shortage of vocationally skilled workers, resulting in labour market shortages. Interviews conducted by the OECD team with Thai government representatives further confirmed the lack of relevant vocational skills, particularly the shortage of skilled technicians and operators in the industrial sector, partly due to impractical VET programs despite attempts to update them (OECD 2021).

Since 2014, the Thai Government has been working on reforming the vocational education and training (VET) system. This effort aims to meet industry needs, enhance productivity, improve graduates’ employment prospects, and better match skills training with labour market demands. The Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) under the Ministry of Education is tasked with establishing standards and curriculum for VET teaching and learning (Australian Government 2020).

According to Chalapati and Chalapati, collaboration between vocational providers and industry is crucial to building a vocationally skilled workforce. They identify five key policies for these: (1) government commitment to expanding the vocationally skilled workforce, (2) fostering collaboration between vocational colleges and industries, (3) enhancing the involvement of private vocational providers, (4) promoting a favourable perception of vocational education, and (5) ensuring the ongoing implementation of policies (Chalapati & Chalapati 2020, 1-2).

2.3       School-in-Factory in the context of collaboration under Tripartite Education system

Due to its close connection with general and academic education and the workforce, vocational education requires collaboration and coordination with other sectors. Effective collaboration and coordination can be attained by involving vocational education in a social dialogue with social partners (Wheelahan & Moodie 2016).

The “School-in-Factory” (SiF) model was established in 2012 in collaboration and coordination between the private company Michelin Co. Ltd., a public agency National Science Technology and Innovation Policy Office (STI Office) and the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) with the education sector as implementation actors namely Sattahip Technical College and Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna. The primary purpose of the collaboration was to solve the problem of the shortage of qualified technicians and research engineers, contributing to a decrease in employee turnover and an increase in the country’s productivity (Phalasoon 2017). Meanwhile, the concept of collaboration in the Tripartite education system has been initiated (Moonpa et al. 2021). In other words, SiF is a dual system and Work-integrated Learning approach (Phalasoon 2017). According to the Secretariat of The Senate (2020), Work Integrated Learning is an educational approach that integrates academic learning with practical work experience.

Similar initiatives may exist in Thailand, such as cooperative education, apprenticeships, internships, and fieldwork (iSchool KKU 2019), although the specific details and implementation can vary. These programs aim to bridge the gap between academic learning and practical skills, ultimately better preparing students for the workforce. 

At the higher education level, which includes TVET, work-integrated education is categorized into nine groups. These activities are divided based on the period before entering study, during study, the end of studies, and before graduation. This organization aligns with the guidelines for structuring education integrated with work, considering the relationship with the learning venue: pre-course experience, sandwich course, cooperative education, joint industry-university course, fieldwork, cognitive apprenticeship or job shadowing, placement or practicum, new traineeship or apprenticeship, and post-course internship (Higher Education Network: Upper Southern Division 2018; iSchool KKU 2019).

3        Methodology

This article employed pragmatic content analysis and relevant document analysis. Pragmatic content analysis is a qualitative research method that focuses on analysing textual data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings within the content. It is considered pragmatic because it involves a flexible and adaptable approach to data analysis, allowing researchers to tailor the analysis to the study’s specific research questions and objectives (Ramanadhan et al. 2021).

Figure 1 below presents the results in the form of a summary analysis (Gläser & Laudel 2019; Gläser-Zikuda et al. 2020) by collecting data from field data collection on 7 Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) between the cooperation of RMUTL, private companies and TVET College between 2013 until present (see Fig.1 below). The content analyzed is divided into (1) Collaboration structure, elements, and concept; (2) Collaboration Objectives; (3) Role and responsibilities; (4) The curriculum (5) Criteria/processes for student selection and participation.

Figure 1: Analysis framework

Table 1: Memorandum of Understanding

We will not mention the government sector because the education and the private sector are the implementation agencies that follow government policy. This approach helped to explore insights into collaborations, partnerships, relationships, and industry linkages between training providers and employers.

4        Findings and discussion

These findings were documentation analysed from 7 Memoranda of Understanding during the period 2013 to 2028 and are divided into: (1) Collaboration structure, elements and concept; (2) Collaboration Objectives; (3) Role and responsibilities; (4) The curriculum; (5) Criteria/processes for student selection and participation.

This section refers to collaboration between Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna and Michelin Siam Co., Ltd. (hereinafter referred to as Collaboration A), Collaboration between Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Nuovo Plus Co., Ltd. and WRENCHRE Special Tools and Services Co., Ltd. (hereinafter referred to as Collaboration B), Collaboration between Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, S.V.S Air Engineering Co., Ltd., and San Kamphaeng Technical College (hereinafter referred to as Collaboration C).

4.1       Collaboration structure, elements, and concept

The collaboration comprises private companies, the education sector represented by Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL), and TVET colleges. RMUTL serves as an intermediary liaison between companies, the education sector, and the public policy sector. The concept of collaboration in the “School-in-Factory” or “Tripartite Education System” was initiated in 2012 and implemented in the TVET system in 2013, and it continues to operate in various collaborative forms.

The Tripartite Education System is a collaborative approach involving three primary stakeholders: educational institutions (universities or vocational colleges), companies, and government agencies or relevant public bodies. The SiF concept denotes an educational management system akin to a boarding school, where instructors assume multiple roles. These instructors are referred to as “Research Assistants/Teaching Assistants,” and their primary responsibility is coaching and mentoring.

The collaboration structure is unique to each organization, with RMUTL serving as the central facilitator in coordinating the collaboration between companies and educational institutions. The collaboration management is divided into two main components: 1) collaboration management and 2) curriculum management according to educational regulations and laws. Figure 2 below illustrates the collaboration structure.

Figure 2: Collaboration structure of Tripartite Education System and School-in-Factory (Moonpa & Chaiyong 2021)

The elements of collaboration management comprise:

• Collaboration Managers, whose primary responsibilities involve communication, coordination, and facilitation of collaboration with relevant stakeholders (private companies, TVET colleges, universities, etc.).
• Collaboration Coordinators, who assist the Collaboration Managers.
• Research Assistants/Teaching Assistants, who are graduate students serving as dedicated instructors for the collaboration.
• Participating Students, who are TVET or undergraduate students enrolled in the collaboration.

In the curriculum management aspect, the Curriculum head takes the leadership role in managing teaching and learning processes in accordance with the regulations and laws of education. Consequently, the organizational structure of the three collaborative models employs a functional organizational structure and a matrix organizational structure.

4.2       Collaboration Objectives 

Between 2013 and 2020, the primary objective was to promote deep cooperation between industry and educational institutions to jointly develop technical and technological human resources, including skilled technicians, technologists, and industrial researchers in science and technology fields. The collaboration aimed to strengthen the workforce by producing high-quality personnel who could meet industry demands. The goal was to create and develop models for integrated teaching and work practices in technical and technological workforce development, with the potential for broader implementation to enhance the quality of vocational education.

From 2020 to 2024, the emphasis shifted towards tripartite education management objectives through work-integrated learning approaches. The focus was on fostering research collaborations between companies and universities to develop human resources with learning outcomes and competencies aligned with industry needs.

Initially, the overarching objective was to promote deep cooperation involving public agencies, universities, and industry to create pilot project models for practical implementation in workforce development across all levels, catering to the demands of various industries.

4.3       Role and responsibilities

4.3.1      Public

Between 2013 and 2020, the role of the public sector, represented by the National Science Technology and Innovation Policy Office (STI office), was to initiate and support the development of technicians, technologists and industry researchers (mentors) to acquire competencies aligned with industry needs. This involved supporting and coordinating cooperation among relevant government agencies, industries and educational institutions. Policy-oriented studies and research were conducted to inform future project expansions. The Office of Vocational Education Commission managed teaching according to agreements, collaborated in curriculum development, established assessment criteria, and evaluated the development of technical and technological personnel.

4.3.2      Private sector 

The private sector’s main responsibilities were preparing work training and learning venues for students, planning, and facilitating integrated learning-work management, collaborating in curriculum development, establishing assessment criteria, evaluating the development of technical personnel, conducting crucial skill development activities for students, such as practical skills training for work purposes, and evaluating work performance.

4.3.3      Education sector 

The Tripartite education system model involved two educational partners: universities and TVET colleges, whose roles and responsibilities were mentioned in Section 4.1. Parties collaborated on curriculum development, assessment criteria, and personnel evaluation, and also planned teaching tools, selected students, developed teaching staff, appointed project leaders, managed teaching, supervised work experiences, and promoted academic, vocational, ethical and moral training. They ensured education quality, supported graduate employment, and evaluated overall performance.

4.4       The curriculum

The curriculum was divided into two levels: (1) at the vocational education level, initially, teaching was managed in the diploma in industrial technology program by a university in collaboration A during 2013 – 2020. In 2022, the dual education system was used in collaboration B and utilizing the diploma in mechatronics and robotics program of OVEC. However, education management was conducted by the university. Additionally, the dual-TVET education system was used in collaboration A also, employing the diploma in mechatronics and robotics program managed by a TVET College alongside education management at the undergraduate level with modern agricultural machinery by the university. This continued in the same manner in 2023. (2) Initially, the mechanical engineering program was used at the graduate level, and electrical engineering was added in 2023.

Creating and developing students to meet industry needs requires a partner well versed in TVET. As a university originating from TVET, RMUTL comprehends the TVET philosophy and maintains a robust connection with industry. Thus, RMUTL is a crucial player in project and curriculum management. 

4.5       Criteria/processes for student selection and participation 

In the initial phase, student selection follows agreements between both parties, but the specific number of students is primarily determined by the company. High school and/or vocational certificate students who are about to graduate are selected through written exams in mathematics, English, and general knowledge. They then undergo interview processes and physical competency tests. This process is carried out in collaboration A and B, where companies and educational institutions work together. For collaboration C, the time for student recruitment and selection has passed, which means the company did not participate in the student selection process.

This shows that the university and company are mainly responsible for initial student selection processes. On the other hand, the company is mainly responsible for demand requirements. In summary, the key aspect is the implementation with industry partners who understand the sector and can focus on developing the entire system of the Tripartite education system or School-in-Factory (SiF). This approach promotes the advancement of TVET college teachers by involving them in collaboration and supporting their development through graduate programs. However, learning from the best practices of the tripartite education system or SiF extends beyond education. It requires understanding the management system, teaching management, teacher training systems, student training systems, student care, and measurement and evaluation. Additionally, it involves continuous improvement to meet the workforce development goals of Thailand 4.0.

5       Recommendations for further development of the Tripartite Education System in Thailand and the ASEAN

Based on a comprehensive analysis of the tripartite education systems implemented in the three distinct SiF collaborations, the three collaborations share similarities in the collaborative theoretical model. They represent a relationship with three partners who focus on a goal with different roles and responsibilities. 

In conclusion, the tripartite education systems implemented in the SiF collaborations demonstrate innovative approaches to bridging the gap between education and industry. Despite challenges, these collaborations have contributed to workforce development, enhanced educational quality, and fostered closer ties between academia and the private sector. Moving forward, continuous evaluation, stakeholder engagement, and adaptation to evolving industry trends will be crucial for sustaining the success of these collaborative models. The following recommendations can be made for further development of the Tripartite Education System in Thailand and the ASEAN region. See Fig. 3 below for recommendations for TES/SiF.

Figure 3: Recommendations for further development of TES/SiF

However, in future, research work should present (a) a more methodological approach to measuring social impact on each sector; (b) an in-depth exploration of how to evaluate the outcome and impact of SiF; (c) an in-depth analysis of costs and benefits would be very useful to students, all partners and a sustainable education system; (d) the tangible benefits of adopting a collaborative working approach.

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The papers in this issue of TVET@Asia provide insights into different countries’ approaches to achieving excellence in technical and vocational education and training. The authors contribute to highlighting best practice examples from their respective countries and regions by also highlighting the relevance of TVET research and the role of TVET teachers and trainers for excellence.

VI HOANG DANG and THANH THUY NGUYEN (Ho Chi Minh University of Technology and Education) explore the relationship between TVET providers and industry in Vietnam using an explanatory sequential design. Working with 162 manufacturing company managers, 36 selected managers, 18 TVET providing managers, 6 policymakers and 7 association representatives in Vietnam, they identified a significant need for a skilled workforce in industries and a mismatch with regard to the involvement of stakeholders in the skills development process. The findings pointed towards the significant role that localities should play in strengthening the public-private partnership model through the engagement of local authorities and community members.

HASAN CAGLAYAN DUNDAR from the University of Ankara Yildirim Beyazit examines the critical role of TVET training centres in decreasing Turkey’s high NEET (Not in Employment, Education, or Training) for young people. He found that TVET training centres play a key role in fostering a skilled workforce to boost economic growth. The paper advocates the holistic transformation of centres and the comprehensive system in order to reduce NEET rates.

J. MANUEL GALVIN ARRIBAS (European Training Foundation, Italy) discusses the importance of networking for vocational excellence, particularly in the context of addressing challenges such as climate change, demographic trends, and skills shortages. The European Training Foundation’s Network for Excellence is highlighted as an example of international networking on VET excellence. The article also emphasizes the strategic objective of vocational excellence in European member states and the need for innovative policy reforms. Additionally, it mentions the importance of vocational excellence in countries such as North Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey, and Moldova, among others.

SOLEIMAN PAKSERESHT (Bu-Ali Sina University) has written an article on improving coordination between stakeholders of the TVET system in Iran. The article discusses the history of governance regimes in Iran’s TVET system, and the challenges faced by the High Council in coordinating the formal, informal, and non-formal subsystems of skills training. The article analyzes the core model of coordination underpinned in the Comprehensive System of Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act (CSTVET) and embodied in the High Council structure and functions. The author uses the evaluation framework provided by the ILO and UNESCO in 2018 to identify ways of improving coordination between stakeholders of the TVET system in Iran.

The main focus of the paper written by MERVI JANSSON and ANNA LAGER (Omnia Education Partnerships, Finland) is concerning a research-based model that analyses vocational excellence. In general, the model developed by Jansson and Lager is composed of horizontal and vertical dimensions of vocational excellence. In specific, the horizontal dimension comprises infrastructure, human resources, pedagogical landscape, systems and processes and stakeholder collaboration, whereas the vertical dimension emphasizes innovation, greening and digitalisation. The authors assert that TVET providers must consider the influence of vertical components on the horizontal components in order to achieve vocational excellence. In short, the TVET excellence model serves as a framework and guideline to TVET practitioners to achieve vocational excellence through continuous improvement and collaboration between public and private sectors at both national and international levels.

SONGHEANG AI and VORN TIM (Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Technical Education Development (SEAMEO TED)) conducted a study to identify the core elements of instructional practices. The survey involved 87 instructors from a training institute in Cambodia and a set of questionnaires was used for data collection. In their study, Ai and Tim discovered that teaching methodologies, curriculum and training programs, content knowledge, and instructional materials and equipment are the major factors that contribute to effective instructional practices. The authors suggested that those identified components should taken into consideration for the purpose of instructors’ professional development.

The Editors of Issue 21
Lai Chee Sern, Niwat Moonpa, Tee Tze Kiong, & Songheang Ai

Thailand Industry 4.0 aims to develop an economy that is driven by innovation to advance to the level of high-income countries. One factor that would help drive such growth is continuous labour development. The Thai government recognized the significant role of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in developing a competitive workforce and encouraged its improvement through various strategic policies. This paper discusses a TVET model that seeks to enhance the implementation of a Dual TVET system that involves work-based learning in Thailand through a collaborative structure and the application of action research. The study employed two research methods: relevant document analysis and a semi-structured questionnaire. Seven Memorandum of Understanding (MOUs) signed among Tripartite system partners were examined to find out their roles and responsibilities. The semi-structured questionnaire comprised ten open-ended questions and was sent to nine representatives from TVET colleges, companies, and universities to identify their experiences and recommendations for further development. Different roles and responsibilities of partners in the Tripartite education system model (TVET colleges, university, private sector) which are based on participatory management will be discussed in this article. Learning venues of work-based learning, learning activity, learning processes, project evolution and assessment are part of this discussion. Better communication and a common understanding among partners can lead to the meaningful implementation of this project. The cooperative model of different learning venues with the application of action research strengthens the Thai TVET system, as well as contributing to systematic and societal innovation.  

Keywords: Tripartite Education, Learning venues cooperation, Thailand 4.0, Participatory action research in TVET

1        Situation of TVET and perspectives in Thailand

The goal of Thailand Industry 4.0 is to develop an economy that is driven by innovation to advance the nation to the level of high-income countries. To achieve this goal, the Thai government announced the development of ten industries (S-Curve and new S-Curves). These ten industries will transform Thailand’s comparative advantage into competitive advantage through knowledge, technology, and innovation. The first S-Curve industries are: agricultural and biotechnology, next generation automotive, smart electronics, affluent medical and Wellness tourism, and food for the future. The new S-Curve industries include robotics, aviation and logistics, biofuel and biochemical, digital economy, and medical hub. For the first S-Curve, the government promoted innovative improvement and research to keep up with competitive global development and to enhance the five new industries’ capacity to manage future competitiveness. The demand for a knowledgeable and highly skilled workforce in these ten industries cannot currently be supported by the Thai labour market. According to Chalamwong (2019), the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) development plan requires approximately 173,000 people with vocational qualifications but the country is still 32% short of this number. The shortage of high-quality technical and vocational graduates in the service and industrial fields extends to the areas of 1) machine shop mechanics, 2) electrical and electronic technology, 3) mechatronics, 4) mould engineering, and 5) welding (Mongkhonvanit 2017).

Thai’s TVET faces challenges both in terms of quality and quantity. The biggest problems in Thai’s TVET are the quality of vocational teachers and the lack of essential resources and training equipment at TVET Institutes (Chanwit 2014; Rukkiatwong 2016; Subcommittee on vocational education reform 2017). Other challenging issues are 1) learning content and curricula that are not consistent with employability skills, 2) lack of intermediary organization for the expansion of dual vocational training, and 3) ineffective quality assurance at TVET Institutes. One of the recommendations identified by Chanwit (2014) to cope with these problems is to strengthen cooperation between vocational schools and the enterprises.

TVET is a key element of the national agenda for development in Thailand. The following section outlines the structure of the Tripartite system. It employs a collaborative network of different learning venues, companies, university and TVET colleges to foster work-based learning in Thailand.

2        The Tripartite Education System

This section describes theoretical background on learning venue cooperation and explores the general structure of the Tripartite education system, which includes university, TVET colleges and the private sector.

2.1        Theoretical background on learning venue cooperation

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Thailand can play a significant role in developing a competitive workforce (Wattananarong 2012). One of the main supporting factors is the “link between the world of education and the world of work” that can increase the quality and attractiveness of TVET related training (Vroonhof et al. 2017, 3).

This section explains the theoretical background of learning venue cooperation. According to Pätzold (2003), learning venue cooperation is a “technical-organizational and (…) pedagogically based interaction of the teaching and training staff of the learning venues involved in TVET” (Pätzold 2003, 72). The objective of this collaboration is to connect theory and practice across learning venues in order to train qualified learners, and to contribute to the continued improvement of the training programme.

Pätzold (1991) identified four levels of learning venue cooperation: 1) pragmatic understanding of cooperation, 2) practical understanding of cooperation, 3) didactical and methodical aspects of cooperation, 4) educational-theoretical understanding of cooperation.

In 1) pragmatic understanding, cooperation is based on “formal” or administrative requirements on an essential level. This level is prominent in training practice among partners. In 2), practical understanding is based on personal experience derived from problems and challenges. The initially one-sided need for cooperation can always be expanded. This level of cooperation is also popular for training practice. 3) Didactically and methodically founded understanding is based on occupational learning contexts. Motivation is pedagogically guided. Finally, 4) educational-theoretical understanding of cooperation expands on didactic-methodological cooperation with central aspects (e.g., formation of action competence) of educational theories.

Successful training across different learning venues also depends on conditions such as the coordination of learning processes, agreements, and how different learning venues view and understand cooperation. The next section explains the structure of the Tripartite system and the roles of the partners involved.

2.2        The Structure of the Tripartite Education System

The structure of the Tripartite education system model of Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL) is shown in figure 1 below, developed from Moonpa et al. (2019, 11). It is divided into private and public (partnership) sectors and the education sector, which includes high schools and TVET colleges respectively. The relationship of the two sectors is primarily driven by university (RMUTL).

Figure 1: Tripartite Education System model (developed from Moonpa et al. 2019)

This Tripartite education system model brings together the roles of each responsible party. Close cooperation between the private sector and the educational sector (including vocational and higher education levels) seeks to develop scientific and technological resources, increase manpower, strengthen innovation and production models, and upgrade the level of technicians and technologists needed to meet demand in the private or industrial sector. So, this public sector should be encouraged to collaborate with each sector to enhance national or Thailand policy (THAILAND 4.0).

The role of scientific research for the development of TVET through the Tripartite education system can help to drive Thailand 4.0 policies forward. With participation from education, private and public sectors, knowledge of work-process based learning can be shared among partners. Information or challenges from the field or companies can be shared with education partners. The education sector can then create a model to solve those problems. Through participatory action, the education model can be implemented to evaluate the impact in actual working contexts.

Action research, according to Bradbury (2015), is a democratic and participative orientation to knowledge creation (Bradbury 2015). Moreover, participatory action research allows joint knowledge production and is therefore relevant to a specific community such as TVET in Thailand. This cycle of action can lead to knowledge innovation that meet the demands of all stakeholders. The figure below shows the interconnection between practice and action research within the Tripartite education system.

Figure 2: Scientific research and development (Kräenbring 2019)

3        Research Method

To understand the structure of the Tripartite education system model through the roles of different learning venues, this study employed a) document analysis and b) a qualitative questionnaire.

3.1        Document Analysis

This method was used to understand the objectives, roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders within the Tripartite education system model and to study the evolution of cooperation between partners, as well as the elements that contribute to this development.

Table 1: List of the Memorandum Of Understanding (MOU) signed under the Tripartite education system.

3.2        Qualitative questionnaire

The questionnaire helps to better understand the roles and responsibilities, experiences, and recommendations of the stakeholders in the Tripartite education system project. The semi-structured questionnaire is sent to respondents who are representative of different learning venues: TVET colleges, companies and RMUTL. Specifically, there are five respondents from TVET colleges, two representatives from companies and two respondents from university. The semi-structured questionnaire contains 10 open-ended questions.

Data analysis includes 1) preparing the data by putting it into different themes according to the questions: motivation for joining the project, goals and objectives in joining the project, roles and responsibilities, challenges, problems, opportunities, recommendations, opinions on the Tripartite project, 2) comparison of data from each stakeholder, 3) identification of most common or expected answers, surprising elements or ideas, and 4) results presented in the form of quotes.

4        Research findings and outcomes

4.1        Findings from document analysis

Results from the analysis of seven MOUs signed under the Tripartite system from 2013 to 2018 found that the roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder had improved constantly. The findings below are separated into two main parts: roles and responsibilities of partners and the evolution of this partnership.

4.1.1       Roles and responsibilities of different parties involved in the Tripartite education system.

The following section explains the roles and responsibilities of education and private sectors.

Role of Education sector

The Tripartite education system model features two educational partners, namely university and TVET colleges. The university is responsible for learners at undergraduate and graduate levels. TVET colleges take responsibility for teaching management on vocational certificate (Por-Wor-Chor) and high vocational certificate levels (Por-Wor-Sor). University will be discussed first, then the roles of the TVET colleges.

RMUTL university focuses on education management, research, academic service and resource development based on science and technology through participatory action research with other partners. Therefore, RMUTL is a key power agent collaborating between the private/public and education sectors. Active collaboration is coordinated by the Industrial Liaison Office and TVET Hub Lanna.

The Industrial Liaison Office (ILO) coordinates between public and private sectors which include state enterprises, public organizations, juristic bodies, partnerships, limited and public companies and the education sector. ILO is also responsible for project and activity management, such as the community of practice (CoP) committee and executive management meetings.

TVET Hub Lanna was established through the Thailand Partnership Initiative, known as Chevron’s Enjoy Science Project. The five-year timeline of this project was to develop Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) and vocational education at TVET colleges. TVET Hub Lanna is a coordination centre for TVET colleges and high schools in the northern region. Additionally, TVET Hub Lanna oversees administrative and academic work (Moonpa et al. 2019, 12), including a seminar project for the Tri-Curriculum Challenge: designing and creating FIRST Tech Challenge (STEM for Robotics) using Project Based Learning (PjBL) with a team of RMUTL lecturers. The aim of this seminar was to put high school teachers’ skills to the test to prepare STEM for TVET classrooms at Prince’s Royal College.

In addition to the Industrial Liaison Office (ILO) and TVET Hub Lanna, universities also play an important role in the development of teachers or facilitators who are expert in higher vocational technology and have extensive practical technical knowledge. Teachers/facilitators who come through this process can act as mentors for TVET colleges, helping to counterbalance TVET colleges’ lack of industrial machinery and instruments or higher technology. They can also contribute to appropriate assessment for learning processes. The university thus plays an important role in the development of the Tripartite education system. RMUTL university has greater freedom and enjoys the flexibility to work with private industries, for example with regard to laws and regulations for educational staff working with private companies and also in conducting action research. (Moonpa et al. 2019, 12).

TVET colleges who grant educational degrees could offer appropriate curricula for the demand sector that align with professional standards of the Thailand Professional Qualification Institute (TPQI). Joint planning and organization of study plans would help to determine the criteria and qualifications of students, enrolling them according to the rules and declarations of vocational colleges and universities. Coordination of teaching/learning management and supervision of educational institutions in the project could also be conducted on a joint basis. Full-time teachers or teachers from vocational colleges could teach in basic professions, specialized professions, field work, internships, and other projects through close collaboration with facilitators. Moreover, TVET colleges also provide experienced teachers to support facilitators in the field of professional education, from the curriculum to teaching and learning, and monitor educational quality in accordance with the standards of the Office of the Vocational Education Commission. TVET colleges have to ensure the adequate provision of qualified staff, not only teachers, trainers and supervisors but also career advisors and coordinators to support cooperation. In addition, TVET colleges have to prepare machines and instruments necessary for basic vocational skills training.

Role of Private sector

To develop new engines of growth, Thailand 4.0 is pivoting to a value-based economy. Industry needs to transform and prepare human resources for this shift. In the Tripartite education system, private companies prepare learning venues for students and teachers or facilitators from the education sector. It also accompanies in-company trainers with industrial experience in their development of competency, academic qualifications, coaching and mentoring skills. In order to produce qualified technicians to meet industrial demand, private companies provide the necessary tools for work based-learning.

Private sector demand has certain problems that need to be solved such as lack of the skilled workers and high turnover rate of the employees. A common goal would help to focus skills development for qualified workers. The private sector takes part in developing action plans to facilitate and prepare for work-based learning arrangements with the education sector. Private companies share the required criteria and levels of competency with vocational colleges and universities in the selection process for students. They evaluate the performance of students and facilitators on site and participate in overall project evaluation. They also create evaluation criteria, assess the skills development of technicians and technologists, and participate in curriculum development.

In addition, the private company provides a support team responsible for taking care of students’ learning progress and their remunerations. They also provide project managers/administrators to coordinate related activities between company and university, resolve conflicts that may occur, and monitor cooperation.

To summarize, the Tripartite education system of RMUTL is at the level of educational-theoretical understanding of cooperation. University has an important role to play in enhancing the dual system of TVET education. Participatory action research has emphasized the dynamic nature of this structure.

4.1.2       Evolution of the Tripartite education system throughout its implementation.

The initial foundation of the Tripartite education system began in 2012 in the pilot project of the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) by Sattahip Technical College (Thai-Austrian Technical College) together with STI office, Michelin Siam Co., Ltd to implement the dual TVET system in Thailand. During this period, the two universities: KMUTNB and RMUTL were supporting the implementation process. However, the beginning of the Tripartite education system began when the two MOUs signed in May 2013, between 1) National Science Technology and Innovation Policy Office (STI office), Michelin Siam Co., Ltd., Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL), Prince of Songkla University (PSU), and Kasetsart University (KU) and 2) National Science Technology and Innovation Policy Office (STI office), Office of Vocational Education Commission (OVEC), Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL), and Michelin Siam Co., Ltd.,. These two MOUs were signed and agreed by all partners to support the Thai national policy in developing the competencies of human resources based on science, technology and innovation.

The first signed MOU referred to the undergraduate university students in the cooperative education for engineering programme organized at the private companies for at least 10 months. The university provides training courses before the students enter their respective companies. The interesting point for the Tripartite education system is in the second MOU when the School-in-Factory (SiF) project which was mainly established by RMUTL. In this project, the vocational students under the WiL project work at a private company. Thus, RMUTL has been acting as a hub for this cooperation. The contents and expectations with regard to the acquisition of skills in the job, practice, learning development, progress at work, and evaluation of the programme. Coordinators are put in place to work on a more intense level of detail between private companies and university. The private companies support travel budgets for university lecturers who are mentoring the students during training inside the company.

In 2018, RMUTL and Sankamphaeng Technical College conducted a joint educational programme for vocational training in mechatronics. This joint programme was implemented to address manpower demand as detailed in Thailand 4.0 policy. As a demonstration project with learners at vocational certificate level, there are many lessons to be learned for future development in terms of understanding management functions, teaching methods, and communication between organizations. The evolution of the Tripartite system is shown below.

Figure 3: Evolution of the Tripartite Education system at RMUTL (Authors’ own graphic)

The Tripartite education system at RMUTL has shown the improvement in the role and responsibility of each partner. During the first stage of collaboration, roles of individual partners are outlined in the MOU, with each element described in more detail: the arrangement of human resources in each sector, budget contributions from the private sector, budgetary management in the project, learning venues for student and teacher are all on the list. Knowledge of work-based learning and technology from enterprises are transferred to the education sector. Participatory problem-solving via a research-based approach comes to the fore among participants. Curriculum development, evaluation and assessment methods have been developed through the combined effort of partners.

4.2        Findings from the questionnaire

Findings from the questionnaire are categorized into common responses and new ideas. With regard to motivation for joining the project, most of the respondents are motivated to enhance the quality of education, improve the working skills of learners, to learn from the working process, and to establish a partnership with other organizations. One respondent, however, was included in the project on the basis of a policy level agreement.

The objectives of the partners in joining the project are: to create a network in vocational education for learners, to develop curriculum & teaching and learning activities, to share teaching and learning resources including personnel, facilities and training equipment, to support the improvement of education, and to recruit employees who match the field of work.

Respondents to the questionnaire see the roles and responsibilities of partners in the project as follows: to offer guidance and support to learners during their training, teach learners in cooperation with other partners, train basic technical skills, provide human resource support, and manage budgets according to Ministry of Education policy.

Challenges faced during implementation were reported by respondents as follows: 1) teaching and training learners to be qualified according to the demands of the labour market, 2) recruiting learners to work later in the company, 3) the alignment of training with institutional regulations, establishing frameworks for collaboration, communication with partners, and other common activities.

Meanwhile, the most common problems are: 1) unclear communication and collaboration among the partners, 2) partners do not understand their roles and responsibilities, 3) difficulties in supporting learners during their training at companies that are sometimes located across multiple sites, and 4) lack of social welfare.

Opportunities arising from participation in the programme are: 1) the ability to train learners according to specific needs and demands, 2) development of the required skills of the learners, and 3) strengthening positive relationships with private companies and TVET colleges.

Partners in the project recommended that 1) there should be more communication among partners (including parents) to create a common understanding, planning and shared goals, 2) the government should further expand such kind of education model, and 3) there should be more financial support, social welfare, and a secured job position.

Finally, opinions toward the Tripartite education project are: 1) the Tripartite education system can support the implementation of work-based learning that requires cooperation with TVET colleges and private companies, 2) it is a good project for learners and it can support the development of manpower according to labour market demand, and 3) through this collaboration, learners gain their competencies and partners can develop a competency-based curriculum.

The table below shows the responses from the questionnaire under different themes.

Table 2: Responses categorized into different themes

5        Experiences, conclusion, and recommendations

Based on the analysis of the seven MOUs signed under the Tripartite education system from 2013 to 2018, it can be concluded that practical collaboration and the implementation thereof are the defining principles to emerge. The objectives, roles and responsibilities of each sector to be managed in the collaborative process include learning activity, learning venues, timelines, regulation, modification and abrogation.

Based on the data gleaned from the questionnaire, all partners showed strong motivation to develop and intensify partnerships that can support learners’ competencies through work-based learning processes. Clear communication and common understanding among partners still represent the main challenges facing the Tripartite education project. Nevertheless, partners found that this collaborative programme can develop required skills for learners. In addition, it can bring partnerships closer together.

5.1        Experiences and lesson learned from implementing the Tripartite partnership

• Laws and regulations concerning the minimum age of learners to take part in the training at the private companies. In the Sankamphaeng model, partners support learners through their respective resources: for example, a university provides training at a mechatronics laboratory and teachers from different vocational colleges teach basic technical skills. However, the average age of the learners at vocational certificate level is 16-18 years. Below the age of 18, working in a company is not allowed.
• Some partnerships signed the MOU first and implemented cooperation later. This was the case with the MOU signed between 1) Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL) Chiangrai Industrial and Community Education College (CRIC) and 2) Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL) and Phrae College of Agriculture and Technology (PCAT). The two MOUs were both signed on 26 October 2018. However, CRIC activities were implemented before PCAT, due to the fact that the CRIC project team was already prepared to support learners in the programme.

In summary, it can be said that the collaborative structure of the Tripartite education system enhances the quality of TVET in Thailand. As one of the respondents stated: “it is a good project for learners and it can support the development of manpower according to the demands of the labour market”. Nevertheless, another respondent suggested that “the government should expand this kind of education model further.”

This study is based solely on findings from partners in the Tripartite education system, including TVET colleges, private companies and RMUTL university. Other important partners such as learners and their parents were not included. In future research work, the scope of respondents could be widened to include opinions from learners and parents.

References

Bradbury, H. (2015). The SAGE Handbook of Action Research (Third edition). Los Angeles: SAGE Publications.

Chalamwong, S. (2019). TDRI indicates a shortage of vocational workers for the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC). Bangkok: Thai Post. Online: https://www.thaipost.net/main/detail/31237 (retrieved 16.06.2021).

Chanwit, P. (2014). Problems of Thai vocational education system (translated by author) Online: http://pokpong.org/writing/vocational-education/ (retrieved 16.06.2021).

Kenan Foundation Asia. (2021). Chevron Enjoy Science – Improving Thailand’s Education Online: https://www.enjoy-science.org/en (retrieved 17.06.2021).

Kräenbring, R. (2019). Work-related learning and vocational pedagogy: Research Workshop on work-related learning and research on vocational pedagogy, July 2019, Chiangmai, Thailand.

Mongkhonvanit, J. (2017). Thailand’s Dual Education System: A Way Forward, Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning. Emerald Publishing Limited, 7, 2, 155-167. Online: https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HESWBL-09-2016-0067 (retrieved 04.10.2021).

Moonpa et al. (2019). Approaches and Structures of Work-related Learning in TVET in Thailand. In: TVET@Asia, issue 13, 1-19. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue9/author_second_tvet9.pdf (retrieved 17.06.2021).

Pätzold, G. (1991). Lernortkooperation. Pädagogische Perspektive für Schule und Betrieb. In: Kölner Zeitschrift für Wirtschaft und Pädagogik. 6, 11, 37-49.

Pätzold, G. (2003). Lernfelder – Lernortkooperationen. Neugestaltung beruflicher Bildung. In: Dortmunder Beiträge zur Pädagogik, Volume 30. Bochum: Projekt-Verlag.

Rukkiatwong, N. (2016). Vocational Training reform in Thailand. Bangkok: Thailand Development Research Institute (TDRI). Online: https:// tdri.or.th/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/nuthasid-vocational-education-v02_2.pdf (retrieved 16.06.2021).

Subcommittee on vocational education reform (2017). Policy recommendations for solving problems of vocational education. Online: https://www.matichon.co.th/education/news_ 493225 (retrieved 16.06.2021).

Vroonhof et al. (2017). Business cooperating with vocational education and training providers for quality skills and attractive futures. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 1-139.  

Wattananarong, K. (2012). The importance and factors related to vocational education. Online: https://www.thairath.co.th/content/237956 (retrieved 11.06.2021).

TVET@Asia Issue 15: TVET research as a central factor for the development of TVET systems

TVET research is an essential factor in the development of TVET systems. Research provides information and advice on TVET policy depending on the needs, focusses and research areas. In addition, TVET research contributes to innovation and the transfer of knowledge in cooperation with TVET practitioners. TVET research always has to take the changes in work and the analysis and design of vocational education and training as well as qualification and learning processes into consideration. Thus, TVET research aims to contribute to the further development of the vocational education and training system.

Despite the relevance of TVET for social and economic development worldwide, the international TVET research community is at the beginning and still has much potential for development. International TVET research also presents itself to be an interdisciplinary approach and addresses a wide range of issues and development tasks at various levels.

The current issues stresses the importance of an international established community and discipline of TVET research. The main task of this research discipline is based on analyzing the situation of the TVET system within the country in order to come to evidence-based conclusions for development processes and reform steps. Malaysia is one example in the ASEAN-region for the impact and success of an established TVET research discipline for the enhancement of their education system (especially for TVET). The following topics can be identified as central challenges for TVET research: first, the methodological-empirical approaches of vocational training research; second, the integration of the results into the advisory services for vocational training policy and finally the establishment of corresponding research competences and structures within and outside the universities. As an interdisciplinary approach, VET research is thus active at various levels, from the macro-level (e.g. conducting and shaping the VET system), the meso level (e.g. the organization of VET courses and institutions) and the micro level (e.g. the analysis and design of education and learning processes).

The present 15^th Issue of TVET@Asia links to some of the conference’s major topics. It comprises five excellent papers addressing a range of the most relevant topics regarding various approaches to TVET research as a central condition for the development of international TVET systems. These papers offer different theoretical settings of work-based learning, concepts of trainings for specific target groups and various approaches of evaluating the current developments of enhancing the TVET system within the countries. The following authors and topics present the potentials of TVET research:

LEE MING FOONG, TEE TZE KIONG, MARINA IBRAHIM MUKHTAR, JAILANI MD YUNOS and MAIZAM ALIAS (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia) are exploring the practice of vocational pedagogies among the engineering TVET teachers in Malaysia. By using a cross-sectional survey, the paper describes different teaching strategies of engineering TVET teachers when conducting the teaching and learning session for theory, practical and drawing. Based on the findings, a framework was developed to provide basic vocation pedagogy approaches among Malaysian engineering TVET teachers.

SUREEWAN RAJCHASOM, KANYAPORN CHAIWONG and KITJANAT TANGJITNUSORN (Rajmangala University of Technology Lanna) put the focus of research on the determination of Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs) based on the Work Process learning concept in the field of bio-fuel industry. Specifically, the authors conducted a case study in which a total of 13 students were involved in work-integrated learning program under the program of Bachelor Degree in Agricultural and Biological Engineering. The PLOs were formulated in accordance to the manufacturing processes of a palm oil company. The case study has identified six PLOs that fulfill the ability and skills required in the entire work process, such as maintenance management, engineering design, and engineering problem solving.

SAMIKSHA NEROORKAR & PERUMULA GOPINATH (Tata Institute of Social Sciences) are clarifying on the concept and components of employability and the factors that can effectively enhance the employability of vocational graduates in India. The paper describes a conceptual framework to understand and analyze the employability of Indian vocational graduates. By using qualitative data collection, which includes interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires and anecdotal data logs, the framework for employability suitable for Indian VET graduates was developed. This framework consists of four components – individual factors, personal circumstances, external factors and institutional factors.  

WAN HANIM NADRAH BINTI WAN MUDA, PUTERI NUR IZAZI BINTI BURHANUDDIN, MOHD HAFIZUL HANIF BIN RAMLEE, and FAZLINDA BINTI AB HALIM (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia) are describing a study that is focusing on identifying the relationship between the level of soft skills and the employability of the graduates at the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. The paper addresses the challenge of describing employability, which consists not only by academic or occupational skills, but also includes (even more for the country and target group mentioned in the paper) soft or social skills. By applying a quantitative questionnaire, the authors are examining the relationship between soft skills and employability among the UTHM engineering graduates. The findings show and interpret different social skills and their statistical correlation to the concept of employability. Finally, the conclusion shows how the issue of reaching employability by developing soft skills by university courses explains the behavior and objectives of engineering graduates.

GOUHAR PIRZADA (STEP Skills Development Foundation, Pakistan) is evaluating the progress and effect of a TVET Sector Support Program in Pakistan, focusing on a capacity-building by establishing a training for Human Resource Managers and TVET School principals. The paper describes a research study in order to identify success factors for the training and furthermore to analyze the impact of global trends (UNESCO Sustainable Development Goals) to the learning content/concept of the training. The results lead to recommendations for the policy level to enhance the approach and the learning effects of the training. The results of the questionnaire used for the evaluation are indicating further needs for connecting the global perspectives (although they are acknowledged as very important) with regional demands for training. The interesting discussion shows how the author is recommending further steps for researching the learning effects and the level of acceptance of this training in more details.

All together, the papers are focusing on the countries of Thailand, Malaysia, India, and Pakistan so far. Thus, Issue 15 is showing some best-practices of TVET research activities that could be a starting point for further activities and for exchange of knowledge and experience through the well-established TVET@Asia community!

A very big thank you to all contributors – wishing you all great reading pleasure!

The editors of Issue 15
Sven Schulte, Niwat Moonpa, Lai Chee Sern, and Siriphorn Phalasoon

Citation

Schulte, S., Moonpa, N., Sern, L., & Phalasoon, S. (2020). Editorial Issue 15: TVET research as a central factor for the development of TVET systems. In: TVET@Asia, issue 15, 1-3. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue15/editorial_schulte_etal_tvet15.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2020).

Work-related Learning (WRL) is a learning form that is discussed in many countries around the world as a means to improve the quality of TVET-systems and thus learners’ competencies development. If WBL is included in an informal learning setting and is labor market oriented, the main principle of WBL is the interrelation between the two or even three learning venues, which are vocational schools, companies, and training centers. As a consequence of the relevance of WBL, there are different systematics and typologies such as work-geared learning and work-oriented learning attempting to classify learning forms according to the proximity to real work.

This article is based on the results from focus group discussions conducted during an International Research Workshop on Work-related Learning in February 2019 in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The workshop included practitioners and experts from Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL), Thailand, Technical University of Dortmund (TU Dortmund), Germany, and representative from Thai companies to discuss and exchange information and knowledge regarding Work-related Learning. Best practice examples of learning forms such as School-in-Factory (SIF) in Thailand and Production Schools or Learning Bay in Germany have been systematically studied and analyzed to find out about similarities, differences and problems in the implementation of Work-related Learning.

The workshop concluded that there are needs for didactical development and scientific research in vocational pedagogies in Thailand. Another important challenge is in the area of curricula design that merge the subject-orientation with the demand of work. Additionally, difference forms of learning that fit to the demand of learners were also pointed out in the workshop. To enhance quality of TVET and for further development of TVET-systems, it is necessary to continuously exchange knowledge between scientists and practitioners from different countries and to do research in TVET especially on Work-related Learning. Therefore, the results from this analysis are presented from the perspective of identifying additional research demand on WRL in Thailand.

Keywords: Work-related Learning, Technical and Vocational Education and Training, Learning in the process of work, Cooperation of learning venues

1        Framework and requirements for TVET in Thailand

Innovation in TVET-systems are complex challenges, which need to respect the given socio-economic context. The following chapter provides a basic insight into the current socio-economic context and the situation of the TVET-system in Thailand. Globalization has shown a significant impact not only towards socio-economic conditions, but also to the life of the people as well as to political affairs. With the drastic economic progress, that is a result of globalization, TVET plays an important role in ensuring the social and economic sustainability and prosperity of the country, especially during the times of disruptive technological progress (BIBB 2019).

1.1       Socio-economic conditions and demographic situation

Due to strong and rapid industrialization, Thailand’s entire social and economic structure has changed in recent years (Grosch 2018, 32). Thailand has been a “constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government” since 1932 (iMove 2014, 10). The development of the Kingdom has progressed from an agrarian to an industrial and service society. Among various economic partners, Germany is one of the most important foreign trading partners to Thailand. With a gross domestic product of $ 345.7 billion (National Statistical Office Thailand 2019), Thailand is one of the advanced economies in Southeast Asia and has a well-developed infrastructure, a free economy and a general pro-investment regime. It has achieved steady growth through strong exports (iMove 2014, 11).

Thailand has 64.5 million inhabitants, 78% of whom are of Thai and 11 % of Chinese descent. Other ethnic groups are of Malay, Indian, Vietnamese and Cambodian descent. The predominant religion in Thailand is Buddhism. Moreover, Thailand has a young age average of 34.7 years and an official unemployment rate of around 1% (National Statistical Office Thailand 2019), which is one of the lowest rates in the world (Grosch 2018, 32). Furthermore, there are about 2.5 million foreign workers from neighbouring countries. Thailand is an attractive country for migrant workers. Since January 2013, there is a newly introduced minimum wage in Thailand. The aim is to increase purchasing power in Thailand and encourage companies to invest in better equipment and training for their employees (iMove 2014, 11).

Due to its strong industrialization process and specific demography, Thailand also has a growing demand for suitable and qualified skilled workers. In addition, cooperation between educational institute and the private sector should be developed better in order to adapt training content to the needs of the labour market (OVEC 2008, 2). Currently, the content that is taught in the training is not demand driven. At the same time, Thailand Industry 4.0 aims to develop an innovation-driven economy that will be on par with high-income countries. The continuous labor market development is one factor that will help drive such growth. In order to develop a competitive workforce, the Thai Government recognized the significant role of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and encouraged its improvement through various strategic policies in order to develop a competitive workforce. The implementation of these policies pose numerous challenges for the country, especially in the area of human resource development (Gennrich 2017). Similarly, increasing technology will fundamentally change work processes. As a result, collaboration between stakeholder groups is becoming increasingly important for identifying needs and training relevant professionals.

1.2       Situation of TVET in Thailand

Formal education in Thailand comprises of basic education (Pre-primary education, Primary education, Lower secondary education, and Upper secondary-general education), TVET and higher education (Phalasoon 2017, 2). It is managed at three different levels:

−      the central level,

−      the sub-national level, and

−      the institutional level (Grosch 2018, 44).

The Thai Ministry of Education (MOE) is in charge of all sectors of formal education and TVET. It is divided into various subdivisions, called Offices. The main responsible body for TVET is the Office of Vocational Education Commission (OVEC). In 2019, the Office of Higher Education (OHEC) has become a new Ministry of Higher Education. The detailed information about TVET within Ministry of Education in Thailand is illustrated in the graphic below.

Figure1: Organizational chart of Thai Technical and Vocational Education (Chupradit & Baron-Gutty 2009, 61)

Since 2008, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) has been regulated by the National TVET Act. TVET can be obtained in a variety of ways, mostly in what are commonly referred to as Technical and Vocational Colleges:

−      Formal Vocational Education. Formal Vocational Education consists of two different three-year full-time study programs: the “Certificate Vocational” (PorWorChor), and the “Diploma Vocational” (PorWorSor) (Grosch 2018, 64). According to the Student statistics summary Academic Year 2019, there are approximately 1,012,580 students enrolled in the formal Vocational education (including students from PorWorChor and PorWorSor programmes) (Information Technology and Vocational Manpower Center, OVEC 2019).

−      Non-formal Vocational Training. The programmes are more flexible. “The curricular, period of time, course evaluation are set into certain conditions according to the needs of targeted groups” (Chupradit & Baron-Gutty 2009, 61). Certificate is acquired after completing the training.

−      Dual Vocational Training System / Apprenticeship. The “Certificate in Dual Education” is acquired for different level of training programmes. In 2015, there were 91,448 students in total who were trained in the DVT system. (Dual Vocational Education Center, OVEC 2019).

Figure 2: Formal Vocational and Training System in Thailand (Researching Virtual Initiatives in Education 2014)

Basic education constitutes of six years of elementary school, three years of lower secondary school and three more years of upper secondary school. After completing three years of lower secondary education, there are two possible pathways to continue the upper secondary education: general education and TVET. The upper secondary- general education (3 years) is offered to develop learners with regard to their aptitude, interest, potential and special talents as a basis for higher education. The upper secondary- vocational education (in Thai: PorWorChor) is designed to develop learners’ knowledge and skills in careers to be skilled labor force or to continue study in a higher professional level (Ministry of Education- Thailand 2016, 1). For further education, learners can continue on their respective stream of education that is from upper secondary- general education toward academic undergraduate and from upper secondary- vocational education toward diploma vocational level (also known in Thai as PorWorSor). This PorWorSor programme is usually completed in two years. However, it is also possible for learners from the upper secondary- general education to apply for TVET at diploma vocational level. Additionally, learners from TVET will continue two more years to achieve the bachelor of technology.

TVET in Thailand is based on the prevailing market conditions. The aim is to impart professional knowledge into occupations. The curricula of TVET depends on the occupational field, the provider and the respective mode of implementation (iMove 2014). In the end, the students have to pass a national examination, the so-called Vocational National Education Test, which is administered by The National Institute of Educational Testing Service (NIETS 2019).

The Dual Vocational Training (DVT) was introduced in 1988 (B.E. 2531) (Office of the Official Information Commission, Thailand 2013) and informed by the German model. The training courses, which are organized in full-time programs in vocational colleges, also provide internships in companies (Grosch 2018, 77). In DVT, learning takes place in college and in the workplace, with practice sessions taking place either at weekly intervals or within the semester. However, the teaching staff is often poorly trained, and the workshops of the schools are often equipped with outdated machines (ibid.).

In the in-company workplace too, learning predominantly takes place by imitation, because the trainers in the companies have no pedagogical qualifications (Grosch 2018, 77). To counteract this, the Thai government has been trying to support the cooperation between vocational colleges and private companies through various plans, for example the 15 years Implementation Guideline for the Office of Vocational Education Commission: Strategic policy on the development of vocational manpower 2012-2016. However, this has not been successfully implemented (Phalasoon 2017).

There are about 900 private and public institutions offering vocational training programs and about 1.05 million students in the formal education system (as of 2012) (Australian Education International 2013). However, TVET in Thailand is oriented towards academic disciplines or branches of industry and does not include the principle of vocations and its work processes as it does in Germany (ibid., 71).

The demand for qualified skilled workers in Thailand is steadily increasing. Nevertheless, the quality of training has not yet been adequately adapted and accommodated to this demand. Rising wage costs led to a so-called “middle income trap” (Grosch 2018, 71). Based on competitiveness and demand, reform approaches promote “the initiatives which include pathway concepts through recognition of prior learning approaches, professional development for technical teachers to underpin competency approaches, and the improvement of the profile and parental perceptions of vocational education” (Australian Education International 2013, 22). Increasing and intensified cooperation between companies and groups of professional (such as Chamber of Crafts) is intended to increase the existing quality of training.

Moreover, the OVEC and the state have developed guidelines to introduce high quality employment standards. The Thailand Professional Qualification Institute is responsible for checking and monitoring these standards.

In general, there is a lower appreciation of vocational education in Thailand. This difference in appreciation of mental and physical work is due to cultural aspects prevalent in the country (Grosch 2018, 72). This is apparent, e.g. clearly in the number of learners who move to secondary education which is generally higher than in the vocational schools. The strong conservatism limits the implementation of innovations, especially in the field of education. The flow of information is still hierarchical in Thailand and is controlled accordingly.

2    The in-company workplace as a venue for experiential competence development

The following chapter will describe different typology of Work-related Learning as well as related didactical requirements, educational regulations, and best practice examples for learning and competence promoting forms of learning.

The place of work as a place of learning becomes increasingly important. “In the company, self-directed and experiential learning is promoted in the process of work, and more strongly linked to organized learning” (Dehnbostel 2019, 6). By learning at the workplace, especially from a business perspective, work processes should be improved and optimized in order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the work (ibid.). Thus learning and working must be linked together, but this approach requires an adequate didactic conception.

Figure 3: Typology of Work-related Learning (adapted from Dehnbostel & Schröder 2017)

The concept of Work-related Learning (WRL) takes an important role. “The term Work-related Learning refers to learning in enterprises, training centers, schools and academia. This includes learning at work and learning within work process and through work” (Dehnbostel & Schröder 2017, 1). By considering the relationship between place of learning and place of work, three different types of Work-related Learning can be identified. They are Work-oriented Learning, Work-based Learning and Work-integrated Learning. By combining the formal and informal forms of learning that are based on experiential learning, this can contribute to learners’ competence development.

−      Work-oriented Learning (WOL): “WOL takes place in formal learning venues. Learning is made up of simulation of work organization, work tasks and processes” (Dehnbostel & Schröder 2017, 5). This learning form is often used at vocational schools and training centers. Some of the examples are production school and junior company.

−      Work-based Learning (WBL): Originally termed as Work-connected Learning. Learning venue and workplace are separated. However, in terms of work organization they are connected. It is usually takes place at the workplace. Examples are school in factory and student company.

−      Work-integrated Learning (WIL): Learning venue and workplace are identical: the actual learning takes place at the workplace or in the work process (Dehnbostel & Schröder 2017, 5). Good examples of this learning form are learning bay and job rotation.

The aim of the different forms of work-related learning is the development of appropriate skills. For having good occupational skills, an adequate theoretical knowledge and experience are necessary. They have to be combined and reflected. In addition to the practice, the teaching of theoretical knowledge takes place parallel to the work in the vocational schools. This organized educational learning, which pursues specific learning goals, is also referred to as formal learning.

In contrast to this is informal learning, which according to Dehnbostel has been recognized as a part of occupational learning. Informal learning is characterized by self-determined, semi-conscious learning, which is based on experience (Rohs & Dehnbostel 2007, 1-2). Thus, there are existing interfaces with forms of learning that have both formal and informal learning characteristics. Formal and informal learning are interlinked and co-dependent on each other mutually (ibid., 1).

In education and training, informal learning has become more important against the background of changing competence requirements. Thus, the necessary experience for complex work tasks can only be acquired directly in the work process (ibid., 2).

There are many advantages for learning in the process of work. “The work process-oriented teaching and learning in the dual system provides young people with an opportunity to acquire specialist skills, knowledge and abilities, in addition to personal competences, through exposure to professional experiences at the workplace” (Gennrich 2017, 4). The further development of professional skills is required to remain competitive and to maintain a job. “Dual or workplace-based training is not outdated, but rather strongly needed to fill the gap of well-qualified workforces with target-related technological qualifications and work experience” (ibid., 6).

2.1       Didactical requirements

To ensure that the place of work is suitable for learning and produces the best learning outcome, the quality of a workplace as a place of learning is significant. It is important to recognize learning in the process of work as this lead to competence development while maintaining his employment status. Furthermore, the quality of workplace has to be considered as an important factor contributing to lifelong learning that will benefit society at large (Dehnbostel 2019). Additionally, it can also be counted as an economic factor, particularly in the competitiveness of a company.

Since learning occurs in the workplace, different dimensions should be taken into account when assessing the learning support of the workplace. According to Dehnbostel (2019), the following elements must be considered:

−      Complete action/project orientation: confront employees with tasks that require many “action operations”. Holistic work action and self-directed learning of the individual are thus supported (Dehnbostel 2019, 66).

−      Freedom of action: The employee should have the opportunity in the work process to “act appropriately, purposefully and independently” (ibid.).

−      Problem orientation and complexity experience: This dimension relates to the complexity and scope of a given task. If these become higher and the task becomes more extensive, the problem and complexity experience of the employee also increases (ibid.).

−      Social support: interaction and communication play an enormous role in the work process and should not be neglected. However, these also depend on the particular culture that prevails in the company. Through group work, “learning turns from an individual to a collective process” (ibid.).

−      Individual development: this is the orientation of the respective task, which is placed on the individual. It should neither be over-demanding nor under-demanding (ibid., 67).

−      Development of professionalism: individuals who are involved in the work process benefit from increased professionalism in their careers. Moreover, “feedback and experience constantly improve the professional ability to act and the expertise of the individual” (ibid.).

−      Reflexivity: “Reflectivity is about reflecting on work structures and environments as well as oneself. Reflexivity means the conscious, critical and responsible assessment of actions based on experience and knowledge “(ibid.).

The successful implementation of learning at the workplace relies not only to the quality of workplace and learning support but also depends on the training regulations, as in the case of Germany. The following section will briefly provide information about different learning venues for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Germany.

2.2       Three different places of learning in Germany

There are three different locations for learning in TVET in Germany, namely vocational school, workplace and training center.

2.2.1      Vocational school

Vocational school is included in two different forms of vocational trainings; in the dual system and in the full-time learning in vocational school.

In the dual training, roles of vocational school are to provide learners with basic and specialized vocational training and to extend prior knowledge in general education. The teaching is allocated in cooperation with other relevant bodies, such as training centers and industrial partners. While the duties of vocational school in full-time learning at vocational school are to introduce students to one or more occupations and train them for those occupations (Schneider et al. 2007).

2.2.2      Workplace as place of learning

In Germany, training places are also offered in the workplace. Companies enter into a contract with trainees. To enhance trainees’ professional competence, these companies are responsible for providing trainers to train the employees with relevant educational or skill courses.

For the dual vocational training, the company provides in-company training to learners (approx. three to four days per week depending on the occupation) and makes sure that the training courses are relevant to the training directive and a framework curriculum.

2.2.3      Training center

Some of the small and medium enterprises do not have enough specialized trainers to cover all of the content in the training courses, lack suitable training equipment, etc. Therefore, the training center is designed to supplement in-company training.

2.3       Learning and competence-promoting forms of learning

In Germany, there are forms of learning that promote experiential learning in the work process. Good examples are the production school and the learning bay. In these two examples, the learning places are optimally linked and also well established and successful implemented. They are explained in more detail below.

2.3.1      Production school:

According to Mertens “the pedagogical concept of the production school is a constitutive part of the work and production processes for the promotion and competence development of young people. Learning processes are purposefully linked with work in structures close to the company with tools and contents. This is precisely what develops and promotes the knowledge, skills and behaviors necessary to start and carry out vocational training” (Mertens & Stang 2016, 1).

Besides the social view, production schools also have an economic perspective to provide a return on investment. Therefore, young people learn by creating marketable products. However, production schools attach particular importance to their own experience of effectiveness and the self-motivation of the learners. Therefore, production schools are a good example of work-based learning, as informal learning takes place in an institutionalized setting.

The production schools in Germany originated at the beginning of the nineties, inspired by the Danish production schools. Currently there are about 200 production schools in Germany with 7,500 places for apprentices per year. Despite the similarities between Germany and Denmark, the production schools in Germany are not unified.

2.3.2      Learning bay:

In the aftermath of the 3^rd industrial revolution, which triggered significant changes in information and communication technologies, there is an increased demand in the workplace for learning forms that directly connect learning and work.

The learning bay, as one approach of combining learning and working, directly connects learning opportunity to the work process. The learning bay is a sub-department of the production line at the center of company work processes (for example in the car industry), in which learners work independently or in groups on real or digital products. This learning form ensures a high practical orientation. Learners have more time to explore the learning objects and the learning processes are supported by facilitators who are well-resourced with occupational, methodological and didactical knowledge (Forschungsinstitut Betriebliche Bildung 2019).

Moreover, the learning bay can contribute to the improvement of learning processes and to the learning ability of individuals and social groups. If they are involved in vocational training, a higher quality work can be achieved. The willingness to learn and the learning ability of the learners are directly increased. Using the workplace as a venue for learning intents to link learning and working together to develop experiential competence. To ensure this form of learning, didactical requirements for learning in the process of work such as a complete action oriented is one of the substantial factors. The training regulation that states roles and responsibilities of each party involved is to guarantee that the training framework is up-to-date and relevant to the demand of labor market. Production school and learning bay are the two examples provided in this article to demonstrate the forms of learning that promote competence in Germany.

2.3.3      Work- and Learning Tasks

Work- and Learning Tasks (WLT) were developed and implemented in the Advanced IT Training System in Germany, where informal forms of learning prevail. WLT are being employed in fluid work-processes and aim at the enhancement of selected competences (Schröder 2009). WLTs are based on real in-company work tasks, which must fulfil certain criteria such as a certain degree of complexity, identity and uniqueness. The learner is given the chance to anticipate the work process with respect to a final objective or product. Deviation from the original planning forms the basis for reflection and learning.

From these examples, it could be seen that Germany has a long-standing history of research on Work-related Learning. These examples were employed at all relevant learning venues of TVET and therefore might be regarded as a benchmark system. Nevertheless, there are forms of WRL in Thailand, which proof to be innovative in the context of Thailand.

3        Example of established forms of Work-related Learning in Thailand

3.1       School-in-Factory (SIF)

The School-in-Factory (SIF) is a form of learning that provides learning opportunities for TVET in different learning venues. SIF is the result of collaboration between the Office of National Higher Education Science Research and Innovation Policy Council (former National Science Technology and Innovation Policy Office – STI), Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna (RMUTL) and Michelin Siam Company Limited. The respective stakeholders make different contributions to this program. RMUTL supports by offering the facilitators and lecturers and the Michelin Company provides the place of work or the in-company learning venue (Phalasoon 2017, 8). The STI supports the program as a state cooperation partner.

School-in-Factory (SIF) is one of the best practice examples for Work-related Learning in Thailand. The aims are to better qualify skilled workers, to decrease the lack of qualified engineers and research engineers, and to reduce staff turnover, thus improving the productivity of the country (ibid.).

The School-in-Factory started for the first time in 2012. It is a program that has a duration of two years. In every year, the learners spend three months at the university and work nine months in the factory or company. However, these learners have a different educational background. There are learners with a lower secondary school degree or learners with a vocational certificate. Because of this diversity, the students have to undergo a two-month training program before being included in the SIF (Phalasoon 2017, 8).

The course of work in the company is structured as follows: The learners have 3-4 hours of theoretical lessons every day in the factory and 8 hours of work for 6 days a week. Therefore, the theoretical knowledge and the work tasks are well aligned with each together. Learning in the work process should be encouraged in this way. In addition, once a month the learners present their own learning progress to the teachers and facilitators and are thus also reflecting on their learning progress (ibid.).

Overall, SIF encourages learning in the process of work. Therefore, as a representative of Work-Related Learning, SIF’s success is proof of the benefits of implementing Dual TVET in Thailand.

3.2       Tripartite TVET System: cooperation among University, Vocational School and Company

The School-in-Factory project was implemented as an initiative from RMUTL to develop another possible solution to solve the problem of lacking skilled labor in Thailand. The project later evolved to include a few more private partner companies such as Betagro, Bio Story Group and Benya Tractor. In addition, the RMUTL has become a significant player in sharing the knowledge acquired from this project with other TVET institutes. RMUTL and TVET schools collaborate through teacher training and joint project. Hence, TVET schools are here the implementation unit of this education program. The graphic below shows the cooperation among different stakeholders.

 Figure 3: Tripartite TVET System (adapted from Moonpa 2019)

This Tripartite TVET System is operated by two main bodies. On the one hand, the Industrial Liaison Office is responsible for the cooperation among public sector, private companies and university. Its main tasks are managing financial support, Talent Mobility Project and several other projects like Betagro WIL TVET Academy Project and SIF: Star Holding Group. On the other hand, the Lanna Technical and Vocational Education and Training Hub (TVET Hub Lanna) coordinates among university, high school and TVET colleges. The major duties of TVET Hub are administrative work and academic work, such as executive committee meeting, financial management, training projects and Fabrication Lab. From Figure 4, it can be seen that the university is playing an important role in doing action research in TVET education and coordinating with its partners. Therefore, Tripartite TVET system supports for the implementation of the Dual TVET System in Thailand.

4        Findings and recommendations

The international research workshop on Work-related Learning provided some thoughtful insights that are summarized in this chapter. The three-day workshop was organized at RMUTL with totally 25 participants from different level of experiences and background. These participants were mainly teachers, lecturers, researchers in TVET areas, and observers from the private companies. The main objectives of the group discussion were to discuss and exchange ideas regarding “concepts of TVET”, “learning facilitator”, “comparison of didactical approaches”, and “different learning forms in Thailand” which were documented by researchers from TU Dortmund. The following conclusions show the central issues/questions for the improvement of the TVET system in Thailand.

−      Interviews of teachers and students from School-in-Factory (SIF) project revealed that “students show better working results compared to regular employees because they are motivated to study in an authentic learning environment” (Phalasoon 2017, 9). Nevertheless, the training duration should be adapted to create a suitable learning environment.

−      SIF is a way to design experiential learning in the work process. However, teachers involved in this project reported that the ability to study and concentrate is limited for many students. Questions discussed included how to increase students’ motivation by using other learning forms and how to design the learning task that link to the work task ware raised. There was also a need to consider individualized forms of learning that are adaptable to the different levels of students’ knowledge.

−      It is also shown that this form of learning yields better outcome if there are enough teachers and facilitators to take care of, as well as to transfer their expertise and experiences, to these learners. However, the most important issues were about the specific roles and responsibilities of teachers, lecturers and facilitators.

−      Regarding the qualifications of in-company trainers, Germany has shown a well-defined and concrete structure about the trainers’ duties and how they should be produced. In-company training staff who are provided by the company and are personally and technically qualified bear the responsibility for providing the training content in the respective occupations according to § 28 Vocational Training Act trainees (The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training 2019).

−      For learning in the process of work, there need to be several dimensions fulfilled to receive the best learning outcome. The School-in-Factory concept already has some dimensions for the learning support. Thus, the dimensions of complete action, reflexivity and the development of professionalism can be rediscovered. These starting points should be further developed and complemented by the other dimensions in order to strengthen both the learning support in the workplace and the workplace as a place of learning.

For further research, the workshop concluded that it is necessary to conduct research about work process analysis, work process documentation and as well as career research. This task should be developed in further international TVET research.

5        Summary and Outlook

Thailand is in the middle of a transition from an agrarian to an industrial society. The biggest challenge is the modernization of the education system. Dual vocational training plays the key role to meet the threat of a shortage of skilled labor and to live up to the conditions of the labor market. For the implementation of these, however, a “cooperation culture” between vocational schools and companies must emerge in order to be able to implement dual training settings. In addition, qualified trainers are needed for the implementation. As concluded in the focus group discussion, Thai TVET teachers need pedagogical improvement. There is also a strong demand for scientific research in vocational pedagogy. Moreover, the question of establishing TVET as a self-reliant academic discipline in Thailand is seen as another possible solution.

TVET research finds itself in Thailand only in a very weakly developed form (see Grosch 2018, 91). “The resulting lack of knowledge is one of the main weaknesses of the TVET system and a key reason for its slow quality development” (Grosch 2018, 91). In his essay, Gennrich (2017) has well summarized the most concise recommendations that fit into this context. The three most important are the following:

−      “Bridging the gap between the world of work and the world of education by promoting Dual Vocational Education and Training (DVET) and various other types of experienced vocational learning systems (such as WIL, etc.)” (Gennrich 2017, 8).

−      “New investments in the business sector also need new investments in vocational education and the labour market sector focused on Industry 4.0” (Gennrich 2017, 9). As mentioned by Rukkiatwong (2016) that Thai vocational education is severely lacking in resources, particularly qualified teachers and training equipment.

−      “Government institutions (MoE/OVEC/MHESI) should collaborate with leading companies and universities” (Gennrich 2017, 9).

With Thailand 4.0, the impact of globalization and evolving technology has contributed to the transformation of Thailand’s economic structure. Accordingly, the vocational education and training of teaching staff needs to be adapted. This could “narrow the gap between the high expectations of the industries and the current performance of education and training” (Gennrich 2017). TVET has to be more geared to the needs of the labour market.

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Citation

Moonpa, N., Phalasoon, S., Gulich, J., & Beecker, P. (2019). Approaches and Structures of Work-related Learning in TVET in Thailand. In: TVET@Asia, issue 13, 1-19. Online: https://tvet-online.asia/issue/13/phalasoon-et-al/ (retrieved 30.06.2019).