Malaysia is in need for highly-skilled human resources to close the present demand-supply gap in various industries, particularly those driving economic transformation. The government has determined that the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector as the main route in providing highly-skilled human resources and also one of the key drivers of the economy for Malaysia to become a high-income nation. While this study recognizes that initiatives have been taken to continuously improve the sector through the TVET transformation programs, it is imperative that the governance issues faced by the key stakeholder are systematically addressed to ensure that the operating and delivery system can be optimized. This paper provides an overview and an analysis of the TVET transformation programs and the governance issues including several challenges to the development of the TEVT sector. A review from various published documents to the present has been used to provide a comprehensive summary of literature of Malaysia’s TVET transformation and governance issues. This study also hopes to suggest certain measures for an effective governance of the TVET sector so that the decisions and actions of multiple stakeholders towards driving the performance and quality of this sector can be harmonized.

1 Introduction

The need for strengthening TVET has been widely acknowledged in numerous countries and unions(Yazçayır & Yağcı 2009) due to technical innovation and globalization (Wilson, 2001), achieving an higher income (ANTA 2002), and thus decreasing poverty (ILO 2012). All of these concerns will lead to the transformation of TVET system to provide workforce with the competences and skills needed for a diverse and expanding market economy as well as strengthening the civil society (EGYPT 2012). In Malaysia, the quality and skills of human resources is very crucial to the success of economic transformation as well as realizing Malaysia’s vision 2020 of becoming a developed nation. According to the Economic Planning Unit (EPU), the demand for labor especially for the TVET sector is expected to increase with the introduction of National Key Economic Area (NKEA). NKEA will require a workforce of up to 3.3 million by 2020 of which 1.3 million are to be TVET graduates. The focused sectors are Tourism, Retail, Greater Kuala Lumpur Development, Healthcare, and Education. However, the current growing labor supply is at 2% per year. If the government would not take any specific initiatives on the labor supply, it would not be able to meet the demand which are estimated 350,000 shortfall of workforce by 2020. Therefore, the needs of 1.3 million skilled workforce in TVET sector would not be met. Furthermore, currently only 28% are skilled workers from an overall workforce of 12 million compared to a minimum of 40% that is targeted at by the government for the year 2020 (JPK 2012b). Therefore, TVET should be transformed to be more flexible in their capacity to anticipate and forecast skills needs so that the demand for highly skilled manpower can be achieved (MOE 2011).

1.1 Historical background of TVET in Malaysia

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) had already been introduced in the period of pre-independence. The history of technical and vocational schools began with the establishment of a Trades School in Kuala Lumpur in 1926, aiming at the provision of trades education to the youth. In 1930, the school was expanded to Ipoh, Johor Bahru and established in Penang in 1932. Trades school is basically training the basics of carpentry, repairing machinery, electrical wiring and construction building with three years courses offered. After independence, the government started to give an enormous concern on TVET, which is expressed from the First Malaysia Plan 1965-1970 to the Tenth Malaysia Plan 2010-2015. During the First Malaysia Plan period, a number of upper-secondary vocational schools were established for the first time. The main function of the vocational schools is to supply skilled technicians, craftsmen and artisans urgently needed by the agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors in economy (JPM 1965).

The establishment of TVET institutions was not limited to vocational schools only. Other TVET institutions such as the Industrial Training Institutes (ITI), Polytechnics, MARA Vocational Institutes, National Youth Development Corps (NYDC) and the Center for Instructor and Advanced Skill Training (CIAST) have been expanded or established to provide technical and vocational education and skills training (JPM 1970; JPM 1975; JPM1985; JPM 1980). Furthermore, the increase of foreign investment through multinational companies in Malaysia resulted in the introduction of new production processes and technologies and in an increased demand of a highly competent workforce with advanced skills. In consequence two advanced skill training institutions were established in cooperation with Germany and France: the German Malaysia Institute (GMI) and Malaysia France Institute (MFI)(JPM 1995). In the 1990s, the number of students entering technical and vocational schools was increasing. Thus, in 1995, there had been some changes in the TVET system including changes in the restructuring and upgrading of 69 secondary vocational schools (SMV) to technical schools (SMT). This reform was not only restricted to the technical and vocational schools alone, but also to a number of institutions that have as well the objective to help students to get a job based on the skills acquired from technical and vocational training, which are Community Colleges, ITIs, polytechnics, and MARA Vocational Institutes (IKM).

In order to support the implementation of an enhanced quality in technical and vocational education and training, the National Industrial Training and Trade Certification Board (NITTCB) was established in 1971. The NITTCB serves as a coordinating agency among the involved government agencies and between the government and the industry. NITTCB also provides common trade standards and improved syllabi and course structures for vocational training institutions. NITTCB also evaluates the quality of training providers and training courses. It was reorganized in 1989 (JPM 1990) and renamed into National Vocational Training Council (NVTC), but its objectives with respect to quality remained. In 2006, with the new enactment of National Skills Development Act (NASDA) 652, NVTC was restructured to become the Department of Skills Development (DSD) under the Ministry of Human Resources (MoHR) with the responsibilities

• to develop and continuously revise training standards, skills training and the certification system,
• to promote skills training and
• to coordinate strategies and skills training programs.

At present, DSD has accredited 1,068 skills training centers, with 101,450 certificates being awarded in the year 2012 including diploma and advanced diploma (JPK 2012a).

For the training purposes, there was a standard that has been used, known as National Trade Skill Standard (NTSS). The NTSS was developed by NITTCB in close cooperation with the industry in 1976 to provide skilled manpower to suit the needs of skilled manpower. Student who achieved the competencies required in the NTSS will be awarded National Trades Certificate (NTC). Technological development and economic changes have required the existing standard to be revised. In 1993, the NTSS was replaced by the National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS), resulted an introduction to a new certification scheme known as Malaysia Skills Certificate (MSC) (Othman 2003; JPM1995). The new system gave recognition to skills acquired through training and job experience. To improve the quality of skills training, the government through DSD embarked on the NOSS development with the new format in 2005. In 2012, about 1,439 NOSS has been developed based on the occupational analysis done by DSD. It also covers 20 skills sectors in the TVET (JPK 2012a). Subsequently, in July 2005, the National Dual Training System (NDTS) was introduced as an alternative system to strengthen the training delivery (JPM 2000; JPM 2005). The German-based system which is an industry driven concept will ensure the training provided is in line with the industry requirements. The main characteristic of the NDTS is the cooperation between training institutions and private companies such as Mercedes, Toyota, Tesco and so on. The training was carried out 70%-80% at the industry and 20%-30% at the training institutions. It referred to the National Occupational Core Curricula (NOCC) as a foundation which was different from the NOSS. In the year 2012, about 138 companies were involved in NDTS (JPK 2012a).

Today, the government continuously formulates, promotes and coordinates TVET strategies and programs which are in line with Malaysia’s economic, technological and societal needs. In the 10th Malaysia Plan 2010-2015, TVET has been chosen as a key component to achieve the country’s goal as a high-income nation by the year 2020 (JPM 2010). This is to make sure that there is a constant, adequate and timely supply of multi-skilled workers that will able to meet the country’s development. Great emphasis on improving the quality of education and skills-based training, increase awareness as well as improving the perception of TVET and strengthen the collaboration with industries for the better recognition were among the further steps to be taken. Nevertheless, these transformation and endeavors wasn’t enough to converse how TVET could be reformed to a better system, particularly if the country needs to compete at the international level in today’s era of globalization. Most importantly, the governance of the TVET system should be strengthened and well aligned with the country’s vision. Based on that, this article will provide a review on the TVET transformation program within several ministries and some issues and constraints regarding the governance in TVET system. The constraints that exist in the governance are very important to be acknowledged so that a comprehensive actions could be considered in improving the quality of the governance system.

2 Method of analysis

This review paper has investigated the information in the field of TVET system in Malaysia with focus has been made to the transformation program and governance system across several ministries. This study includes federal government reports, proceeding papers, journals and electronic references. For a strategic search of the articles that were published in terms of governance in TVET, three journal databases were considered which are EMERALD, ProQuest and ScienceDirect. The search was conducted using five keywords; Technical and vocational education, skilled workforce, governance, TVET policy, and transformation. By applying the document analysis technique, assorted documents has been used to acquire the general idea and perspective in this study. According to Bowen (2009), the document analysis should involve skimming (superficial examination), reading (thorough examination) and interpretation so that the finding can be analyzed and summarized in a comprehensive way. Merriam (2002) also states that one of the strategy to gather and analyze the data can be built around documents which is the entire study can be performed through reviewing and evaluating the documents. The similar method was also being used by Ashari, Rasul, & Azman, (2014) in exploring the student career choice in Malaysia.

3 Discussion

Before we discuss the governance issues that need to be highlighted, it is better to catch a glimpse of the transformation programs that exist in the TVET system so that the similarities and differences between each of the agencies that perform transformations can be assessed in a meaningful way. Several journals, proceedings, and reports including Vocational Education Transformation (MOE 2011), Polytechnic Transformation Plan (JPP 2009; JPP 2012), Community College Empowerment Book 2013-2015 (JPKK 2012), MARA Strategic Plan (MARA 2011; Din 2011) and several reports from DSD (JPK 2012a; JPK 2011; JPK 2012b) were being used to acquire the general idea and perspective in this study.

3.1 Transformation in TVET

Transformation of TVET is a determination of re-engineering the existing vocational education system to build a new system of vocational education, which can contribute to the high-income country. It was designed especially to produce a holistic human capital capable of facing any challenge, whether at the national or global and to provide a highly trained workforce to meet the country’s needs in the job market. A holistic human capital can be achieved when individual self-actualization arises. This can be done by developing technical and cognitive element in TVET. Consequently, it will built a spiritual and high morality person for life long application and implicates their physical, emotional and intellectuality.

TVET transformation focuses on employability components of its future graduates. The success of this transformation can be seen when it provides a significant contribution to the government’s agenda to make Malaysia a high-income country. Currently, the transformation of TVET under several agencies has been introduced in order to strengthen vocational and technical education system at par with others (JPP 2009; MOHE 2012; Dason et al. n.d.), while MARA and DSD had strengthen their role to cope with the challenges.

Ministry of Education led the change through the transformation program on technical and vocational schools, polytechnics and community colleges. At the school level, it will involve two aspects, namely the Basic Vocational Education program (BVE) and Vocational Colleges (VC). Basic Vocational Education (BVE) was introduced as a stream of education in lower secondary school system from Form 1 to Form 3. The implementation of the pilot program was conducted in 15 selected schools starting 2012. The curriculum implies active participation in a direct and practical way with the subject trained (hands-on), with reference to the National Occupational Skills Standard (NOSS). Students will go through three levels of competencies within 3 years to enable them to get Malaysian Skills Certificate (MSC) Level 2 issued by the Department of Skills Development (DSD), Ministry of Human Resources. This transformation would provide opportunities to students who are hands-on and interested in TVET and are academically weak and it provides greater career opportunities to the students to avoid dropping out of the current mainstream education.

As BVE focused on lower secondary school, VC provides an opportunity to the upper secondary school students that have interest in TVET stream with the diverse courses offered at the colleges. This means the feeder for VC will come through the BVE. The most important aspect can be seen when the VC leavers directly being awarded TVET diploma after 2 years training that meet the MSC Level 3 and 4 rather than they have to complete their training in the skills training institutes such as ITI and MARA vocational institutes in order to get the same level of certification.

At the higher education level, polytechnic transformation roadmap aims to develop human resources with emphasis on creativity and innovation. The concept of transformation include to be a leading institution for TVET education, produce employable graduates and build the positive perception towards the polytechnics. Aspects covered include governance, process design, delivery system, curriculum development, quality assurance, the development of competent instructors, quality resources, continuous innovation and recognition by Malaysia Qualification Agency (MQA).Three indicators has been identified to the success of Polytechnic Transformation. First, the polytechnics become the main TVET institutions at the regional level. Second, at least 85% of polytechnic graduates are employed or continue to further their study within six months after graduation. Finally, 50 percent of school leavers (MCE) make polytechnic as their first education pathway.

Another TVET providers that involve in the transformation program is community colleges. The government has strengthened the action plans which focused on high income by increasing skill-oriented programs to produce competent workforce, retrain unskilled workers, and upskill the trainers. In addition, community colleges will intensify collaboration with other TVET related agencies and private sector in the development of the curriculum as well as the knowledge and technology transfer through apprenticeship. Moreover, the number of graduates from entrepreneurship program will be increased and the public will be assured that the government will provide conducive learning environment in order to provide quality services to the local community. Upon successful implementation of this transformation program, it is expected to contribute 35% of skilled workforce that will offer a maximum impact on the economic development of local communities with knowledge-based skills, creativity, and innovation.

To cope with the drastical change of several TVET institutions, a new system of governance is required to stay relevant and responsive. Therefore, regulating agencies need for strategic alignment with these changes. For example, the Council of Trust (MARA) has materialized their Strategic Plan 2011-2015 that enshrine comprehensively in MARA Transformation Strategic Framework 2011-2020. MARA Strategic Plan has some substances. One of them is to make students achieve the objectives of a global human capital with integrity and innovation. Secondly, the education was transformed to create business leaders, entrepreneurs and professional who can compete globally as well as producing excellent graduates in TVET. The third substance is to strengthen the education platform from secondary level of the college and pre-university to provide a strong foundation to send students abroad for undergraduate and also postgraduate program. Finally, the reinforcement of TVET education starting from basic certificate level to the diploma and advanced diploma level will be carried out through a bridging program which handled by MARA University.

The second regulating TVET agency is DSD. Most of the initiatives taken by DSD are following the directive and suggestion stated in the Tenth Malaysia Plan. The government has recognized the need to create comprehensive TVET system to meet the needs of the labor market and to enhance economic growth. The 10th Malaysia Plan has been clearly declared that four strategies will be implemented during the plan period. The perception towards TVET will be improved to attract more trainees, highly effective TVET instructors will be developed, the quality of TVET curriculum will be upgraded and harmonized in line with the industry requirement, and finally the delivery of TVET will be streamlined. Pang (2011) and Mohamad (2011) have underlined a few initiatives to streamline the implementation of TVET in Malaysia. DSD has been appointed as a single agency to harmonize the TVET standards and curriculum, accreditation body for skills sector and have to ensure TVET offering matches employability requirement by appointing and manage the Industry Lead Body (ILB). The ILB will proactively ensure the relevance of NOSS. Malaysian Skills Certificate (MSC) issued by DSD will be adopted as the national certification for TVET. Since MSC are not fully recognized by the higher education institutions and Board of Engineers Malaysia, a Board of Technologist Malaysia (MBOT) will be established. It will not only accelerate the recognition of MSC but also will cover the Diploma and Degree in Technology offered by other higher learning institutions. To assist providers in attracting students, Skills Malaysia Invite was established. This program will encourage international students to enroll in various selected TVET institutions. MQA and DSD also will put an effort to standardize pathway from TVET institutes to university by clarifying educational and professional pathway. A summary of transformation program and initiatives by respective agencies are shown in Table 1 below:

Table 1:    Some of transformation focus and initiatives by respective TVET agencies

3.2 Current governance issues

Since the 1st Malaysia Plan until the newer 10th Malaysia Plan, the TVET sector was divided into two terms i.e. education and training. The term ‘education’ is being used by the Ministry of Education which is responsible for the polytechnics, vocational colleges, technical schools, and community colleges while the term ‘training’ is being used by various ministries such as the Ministry of Human Resources, Ministry of Youth and Sports, Ministry of Rural and Regional Development and the Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry. Each ministry own and operate a varying number of institutes for example ITIs, National Youth Skills Institutes (IKBN), MARA vocational institutes, and private skills training institutions. Another description was also made by Pang (2011) and Ahmad Othman (2003) who highlighted that TVET system in Malaysia were divided into three streams i.e. higher education, technical and vocational education and vocational skills training. The separation of terms and the highly fragmented administration could results in poor coordination and duplication of responsibilities and also will boost up the government funding in the TVET sector.

In terms of accreditation, there was another accreditation body besides DSD in Malaysian education system. DSD, which is mentioned earlier, performs accreditation for the skills sector while Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA), a division within Ministry of Education performs accreditation for the vocational and technical sector as well as academic sector. The existing of the two bodies with separate standards and process for accreditation resulted in multiple qualification systems. Segregation between skills and technical and vocational sectors by the Malaysian Qualification Framework (MQF) creating confusion among students and the employers on the value of the certificate (Pang Chau Leong 2011). Overall, the unique fragmented TVET landscape including multiple qualification systems, with no central or single agency to coordinate the system will make each provider act in silo thereby creating limited synchronization and harmonization of TVET sector. Although there was a platform to coordinate the delivery system through National Skills Coordination Council (MPKK2) (JPK 2012a), the diverse vision/purpose in offering TVET education will create a wide difference in the policy decision and training delivery.

3.3 Harmonizing the governance issues

Different ministries manage their own TVET institutions. There are diverse standards of performance with limited authority and responsibility. Each ministry also has different qualification system with non-uniform curriculum and standards, thereby creating confusion among students and employers in terms of the certificates issued. In certain circumstances, the certificate is offered at a very basic level with little value added and sometimes not relevant to industry needs. While efforts have been made to establish a collaboration between ministries but different policy often limits the flexibility and mobility of students to a higher level across institutes under different ministries.

The Tenth Malaysia Plan has outlined three important issues concerning to TVET education as follows:

• DSD has been appointed as a single agency to upgrade and harmonize the TVET standards and curriculum. It also will become an accreditation body for skills sector;
• Malaysia Skills Certificate (MSC) issued by DSD will be adopted as the national certification for TVET; and
• Pathway from TVET institutes to university will be standardized by clarifying educational and professional pathway.

However, when the transformation plan was executed at the agency level, as mentioned in 3.1, many aspects were not fully accounted for. Ministries administer plans without clear insight or understanding of other ministries’ transformation plans except for the BVE and VC. Furthermore, DSD was not involved with the direction and planning of relevant agencies. This is due to the dissimilar policies and requirements of each other. Should proper transformation plan for each ministry or agency consider the recommendations proposed in the Tenth Malaysia Plan. In terms of harmonizing the TVET standards and curriculum, the DSD still do not have the authority to design the same standard and curriculum for all TVET providers. Each ministry still operates independently with different standards for capacity planning and curriculum development. This will result in duplication of responsibilities in calibrating learning outcomes for TVET sector. Regarding the single accreditation body for skills sector, although both skills and technical and vocational sectors fall under the TVET sector, they still be separated within the MQF. Meaning that, the accreditation system still applies to similar TVET offerings. Skills sector still be administered by the DSD and those in technical and vocational sector administered by the MQA. While DSD administers the skills sectors, there is still training providers who prefer not to be accredited by the DSD. For example, MARA vocational institutes have their own plan to contribute to the production of TVET certification. This will limit the collaboration and sharing of best practices between the agencies.

In terms of national TVET certification, adoption of MSC issued by DSD as the national certification is still unfulfilled. The original government intention is to see various ministries and institutes offer their own certificates which comply with standards set out in NOSS. Unfortunately each agency and ministry, are still comfortable and prefer to maintain their own certification. Only the technical schools and vocational colleges took the initiative to produce TVET certificates that meets the MSC requirements. Finally, the transformation program across ministries are still not having clear educational pathways. For example, students are unable to transfer credits between different institutes under different ministries and only limited qualifications can be used to enter higher education, resulting difficulties for students to have a clear understanding of their educational pathways. So, there is a need to enhance the governance and delivery of the MQF to increase clarity of the educational pathway within ministries.

4 Conclusion

Some of the issues regarded to the TVET governance lead to the issues faced by the employers. Multiple ministries and TVET certifications create confusion among employers on the quality and also difficult to determine the starting wage. Wide variation in the standards is worrying as this may lead to the continuity of poor perception of TVET education among public. In term of recognition, many employers do not recognize the value of skills training or may not fully understand or be aware of the qualifications. Subsequently, it will affect the government initiatives to make sure the TVET institutions to have a closer link with the industry. So, there is a need for a streamlined qualification system that ensures a minimum standard is met and strengthen the confidence of the employers and students in the TVET sector. It is also crucial to establish a central body to govern and monitor the TVET sector so that the implementation of transformation program could be harmonized and will perform at optimum delivery system. In this case, the government should redefine the governance of the TEVT sector to drive the performance and the delivery system. Effective governance of the TEVT sector is crucial to unify decisions and actions of multiple stakeholders towards driving the performance and quality of this sector.

The governance structure for the TEVT sector would be one that demands higher performance standards from institutes, greater coordination across ministries, greater participation from the private sector and reduced complexities. The government should make sure all ministries involve in delivering TVET concern about the Tenth Malaysia Plan important outlines such as:

• DSD as a single agency to upgrade and harmonize the TVET standards and curriculum and become an accreditation body for skills sector; and
• MSC will be adopted as the national certification for TVET.

Should DSD become a single body to harmonize the TVET sector, it will be responsible for providing license, registering and auditing institutes, accrediting courses, engaging industry and managing skills standards and providing inputs on the skill requirements of the economy. Then, it also is possible to merge the Skills and Technical and Vocational sectors of the MQF. This is due to the current MQF that distinguishes between the Skills, Technical and Vocational and Higher Education sectors. This would therefore result in the MQF consisting of only 2 distinct sectors; the “Technical Education and Vocational Training” sector and the “Higher Education” sector. The higher education sector could be managed by MQA focusing only for academic. Finally, MSC automatically can be adopted as the national certification for TVET since it will be certified by the DSD. Overall, the existing of a new singe body to manage TVET will provide a better coordination and oversight at all levels of the TVET sector, resulting a complete view of TVET offerings across the country as well as efficiency in resource allocation. Hence, given the economic significance of this sector, it is crucial to harmonize the governance structure by establishing a central body to govern and monitor the TVET sector.

References

ANTA (2002). Environmental scan for the national strategy for vocational education and training. Australia. Online: www.anta.gov.au/dapStrategy.asp.

Ashari, Z.H.M., Rasul, M.S., & Azman, N. (2014). Hubungan Individu, Persekitaran dan Kebolehsesuaian Terhadap Pemilihan Kerjaya Pelajar Sistem Persijilan Kemahiran Malaysia (SPKM): Suatu Analisis Kandungan. Sains Humanika, 2(1), 135-144. Online: www.sainshumanika.utm.my.

Bowen, G.A. (2009). Document Analysis as a Qualitative Research Method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 32.

Dason, A., Hamzah, R., & Udin, A. (n.d.). Hala Tuju Pendidikan Teknik dan Vokasional ke arah Memartabatkan Falsafah Pendidikan Negara, 1–13.

Din, A.R. (2011). MARA peneraju transformasi bangsa-Keusahawanan dan pendidikan global. Mingguan Malaysia, 14-15. Online: www.utusan.com.my.

Egypt (2012). Egyptian TVET Reform Policy. Egypt.

ILO (2012). TVET Reform: Design an inclusive skills development program. Bangladesh. Online: www.ilo.org/publns.

JPK (2011). Rationalizing the Implementation of Technical Education and Vocational Training (TEVT). Final report. Putrajaya, Malaysia.

JPK (2012a). Laporan Tahunan Jabatan Pembangunan Kemahiran (JPK) 2012. Putrajaya.

JPK (2012b. Program SkillsMalaysia Partnership: Laporan Tahunan 2012. Putrajaya.

JPKK (2012). Pemerkasaan Kolej Komuniti 2013-2015. Jabatan Pengajian Kolej Komuniti, (ed.) Putrajaya, Ministry of Higher Education. Online: www.jpkk.edu.my.

JPM (1965). First Malaysia Plan 1966-1970. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (1970). Second Malaysia Plan 1971-1975. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (1975). Third Malaysia Plan 1976-1980. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (1980). Fourth Malaysia Plan 1981-1985. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (1985). Fifth Malaysia Plan 1986-1990. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (1990). Sixth Malaysia Plan 1991-1995. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (1995). Seventh Malaysia Plan 1996-2000. Kuala Lumpur.

JPM (2000). Eighth Malaysia Plan 2001-2005. Putrajaya.

JPM (2005). Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010. Putrajaya.

JPM (2010). Tenth Malaysia Plan 2011-2015. Putrajaya.

JPP (2009). Halatuju Transformasi Politeknik Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik (ed.). Putrajaya, Ministry of Higher Education. Online: http://politeknik.gov.my.

JPP (2012). Teks Ucapan Amanat Tahun Baharu 2012. Ketua Pengarah Jabatan Pengajian Politeknik, 1-25.

MARA (2011). Surat Pekeliling Bahagian Perancangan Korporat Bil. 1/2011: Pelaksanaan Pelan Transformasi Strategik MARA 2011-2020. Kuala Lumpur: MARA.

Merriam, S.B. (2002). Introduction to Qualitative Research. First Edit., San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

MOE (2011). Pelan Strategik Transformasi Pendidikan Vokasional. Putrajaya, Ministry of Education, Malaysia. Online: http://www.moe.gov.my.

MOHE (2012). Pemerkasaan Kolej Komuniti 2013-2015. Putrajaya, Ministry of Higher Education.

Othman, A. (2003). The Role of The National Vocational Training Council in The Management of Vocational Training in Malaysia: A Critical Evaluation. Batu Pahat, JOHOR: Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn.

Pang Chau Leong (2011). Key Reforms in Revitalising Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Malaysia. In: Regional Conference on Human Resource Development Through TVET as a Development Strategy in Asia. Colombo, 4-5.

Ridderbusch, K. (2013). The dual vocational system is a global export hit – including in the US. In: The Atlantic Times, 1-4. Online: http://www.the-atlantic-times.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1711%3Aapprenticeship-made-in-germany&catid=95%3Adezember-2013-business&Itemid=65.

Sulaiman, M. (2011). Mengarusperdanakan Latihan Kemahiran. Putrajaya.

Wilson, D. (2001). REFORM FOR CHANGING OF TVET THE OF WORK. Prospects, XXXI(1).

Yazçayır, N. & Yağcı, E. (2009). Vocational and technical education in EU nations and Turkey. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 1038–1042. Online: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1877042809001906 (retrieved 21.5.2013).

Citation

Rasul, M.S., Ashari, Z.M., Azman, N., & Abdul Rauf, R.A. (2015). Transforming TVET in Malaysia: Harmonizing the governance structure in a multiple stakeholder setting. In: TVET@Asia, issue 4, 1-12. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue4/rasul_etal_tvet4.pdf (retrieved 26.1.2015).

In the 10th Malaysian Plan 2010-2015, the Government of Malaysia emphasized the mainstreaming of vocational education in its pursuit to transform Malaysia into a high-income developed nation by 2020. To achieve this vision, Malaysia needs more skilled and semi-skilled workers to become knowledge workers (k-workers). The 9th Malaysian Plan indicates that only 28 per cent of the populations in Malaysia are highly skilled workers. To meet the emerging skill requirements for k-workers, vocational education needs to be transformed to equip trainees with requisite skills. Past studies show that in Malaysia there is a gap between the skills learned in training institutions and skills required by employers. However, there are no studies and no model that explores the development process of employability skills in training institutions and the industry. To address this issue, we used a mixed research method (e.g. questionnaire, employability skills survey and grounded theory) to explore the formation of skills in training institutions. The results showed a high level of employability skills among trainees but also the need to consider a number of supporting factors to ensure that skills learned can be applied in the work context.

1 Introduction

Malaysia aspires to reach the status of a developed nation by 2020. To reach that goal, the Government has launched a number of initiatives, e.g. the New Economic Model (NEM), Economic Transformation Programme (ETP), Government Transformation Programme (GTP) and the 10^th Malaysia Plan (10MP). As part of the 10^th Malaysian Plan, the Govern­ment is planning to transform Malaysia into a developed and high-income country over the next five years (Malaysia 2010). Statistics in developed countries such as Singapore, Ger­many and Australia show that more than 50 percent of their workforce is skilled (Ministry of Human Resources 2011; Government of Malaysia 2009).

An Asia Development Bank (ADB) report cited by Ab. Rahim and Ivan Hanafi (2007), which looked at industrial workers in several countries, including Malaysia, revealed that technical and vocational apprentices did not meet the quality requirements or had adequate motivation levels to work after finishing their training. Faced with stiff global competition, there is rising concern that the current graduates do not match the needs of businesses (Gurvinder & Sharan 2008). Thus, the trust of Malaysian employers in skills of their workers has to be low. The worry is that as a consequence of a lack of confidence in the productivity and expertise of certain industries investors could withdraw their investment. Thus, improving skill levels of apprentices should be a priority in order to enhance investors’ confidence in Malaysia.

1.1 Employability skills: Key ideas

Employability and core ability skills are among popular terms used to refer to the required competencies. These competencies were previously known under a broader concept of generic skills (Bekri et al. 2011) or as generic capabilities, enabling skills or key skills (Berntson, Nääswall & Sverke 2011). The use and popularity of the generic skills concept has increased throughout the world and particularly in Australia since the 1980s. Regardless of the origin of the term used, the objective of discussing these skills is the same, e.g. to find the basis for a set of skills that are important for workers to find and maintain gainful employment. (Cassidy 2006; David & Guile 1998; Mohd Yusof et al. 2010).

The Conference Board of Canada (1996) in an article entitled Yukon Work Futures: Skills for Today’s Workplace has defined employability skills as skills and individual qualities which are required of employees when they start work. In today’s globalized world, many employers require employees who not only have technical or hard skills, but also generic or soft skills (Mohd Yusof 2010). In turn, Overtoom (2000) defined employability skills as “transferable core skills that represent essential functional and enabling knowledge, skills, and attitudes required by the 21st century workplace. They are necessary for career success at all levels of employment and for all levels” (2).

On the one hand, Yahya and Rashid (2004) divide employability skills into three types, namely; academic skills, self- management skills, and group skills. On the other hand, Gainer (1988) groups employability as follows:

• Individual skills (communication skills, respect, computer skills and cultural skills),
• Skills covering individual reliability (individual management, ethical, and vocational maturity)
• Economic skills (problem-solving skills, learning skills, employability and career development skills).
• Group and organizational effectiveness (interpersonal skills, organizational skills, negotiation skills, creativity, and leadership).

It is also acknowledged that generic skills are composed of a unique blend of competencies depending on the occupation and position and can be transferred not only between workplaces but also within and outside the country (Ab Rahim and Ivan 2007; Fitrisehara 2008; Government of Australia 2007; Omar, Bakr & Rashid 2012). For example, teamwork skills used in a fast food restaurant are transferable and applicable to working in a hotel restaurant. Employability is therefore enhanced through adaptability of multi-skills based on employer requirements (Overtoom, 2000; Safarin & Kamarudin 2004; Ab. Rahim & Ivan 2007).. Nilsson (2010) also noted that employability skills include the ability to find a job and maintain employment.

With regard to the environment necessary to develop innovative employees, Kay, Fonda & Haye (1998) identified four key points:

• First, all stakeholders – college staff, managers and students – need to work closely together at the planning and implementation levels.
• Second, knowledge-based curriculum requirements have to be replaced with an integrated learning system, more appropriately geared to the needs of business and incorporating themes such as management, communication or information technology into the integrated learning system.
• Third, teaching and learning should be a reflective process.
• Fourth, vocational qualifications should be acquired as part of this process. They are important but should not be the ultimate goal for trainees.

In general, employability skills are non-technical and are one type of job skills that are as important as technical skills (Rasul et al. 2009). Hence, there is a demand for critical employability skills that can be obtained through vocational training. Kilpatrick and Allen (2001) recognize the increased importance of employability skills and emphasize the need for them to be imparted in vocational training. In that regard, Noraini and Noor (2008) found that 80 per cent of their study respondents felt that in their training they were not only exposed to academic and specialized skills but also employability skills, such as management and teamwork.  Often employability skills are considered less important for employment in comparison with specialized skills and personal characteristics. However, this needs to change given employer demand for workers who can cope with a variety of challenges in constantly changing workplaces.

1.2 Employability skills in Malaysia

There seems to be a consensus among Malaysian employers that graduates are well trained in their areas of specialization but lack employability skills (Nurita, Shaharudin & Ainon 2004). While the teaching and learning of  ‘hard skills’ is facilitated by a standard syllabus and evaluation system, the development of ‘soft skills’ remains a difficult task as it involves less measurable elements and varies highly with each individual according to their character and background (Roslina Shakir 2009).

Abd Hair et al. (2004) conducted a study among students of the Industrial Training Institutes (ILP) and the Mara Skills Institute focusing on the employee demand from employers and labor supply generated by public training institutions. They found that employers require employees to, not only master technical skills, but also demonstrate employability skills. Employers emphasize computer skills, ability to continue learning and positive personal qualities as important. Furthermore, they need employees to be flexible and stay committed to their companies.

Thus, higher education especially vocational training in Malaysia needs to be developed to include the teaching and learning of employability skills to enable students to transfer skills and knowledge to the changing workplaces after they graduate. In Malaysia, the Quek study (2005) found that graduate workers consider interpersonal abilities, knowledge and skills, such as flexibility, as very important in contributing to their success in the workplace. In addition, they consider practical orientation abilities and cognitive skills as important for their successful job performance. These employability skill are important for Malaysian graduates to enable them to transfer learning from the classroom to the workplace and for successful work performance (Quek, 2005).

1.3 K-Worker Framework in Malaysia

The K-Worker Competency Framwork, which in some respect is similar to the concept of employability skill, encompasses three elements required to produce ’k-workers’. Our research is based on Wan Seman’s (2007) discussion of the National Dual Training System[1] (NDTS) which suggests that training in technical and vocational education should produce k- workers by addressing  three competencies: (1) technical competency, (2) social and humanistic competency, and (3) methodological and learning competency (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: K-Worker Competency Framework (Wan Seman, 2007)

These three competencies are crucial for producing highly skilled workers. Technical competency should be the focus for any job. Nevertheless, it must be complemented by social and humanistic competencies, as well as methodological and learning competency. Both competencies are very important, not only during hands-on training, but also for real work in order to support lifelong learning.

2 Problem Statement

Malaysia implements Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) through the a system comprising the Malaysian Skills Certificate (SKM), the National Dual Training System (SLDN) and the National Modular Certificate (SMK) (Ahmad Tajudin Jab 2010). The implementation of this system is based on an apprenticeships that involve on-the-job training  and learning in Public Skills Training Institutes (ILKA). The system aims to create highly skilled k-workers who are important for Malaysia in its quest to achieve the status of a high income country. To achieve this goal, it is important to increase the number of trainees in TVE and improve the overall quality of training offered (Mohd. Gazali 2011). However, how to create training that produces highly skilled k- workers through ILPKL remains to be determined. This question is important because previous studies (Ministry of Human Resources 2011; Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skills 2007; Rajiv 2009; UPM 2012) found that there is a gap between the skills required by employers and the skills imparted in training institutes in Malaysia.

3 Research Questions

The research questions are designed to overcome the research problem. The research problem of existing skills gaps can be effectively explored by studying trainees’ inherent skills and the formation process of these skills.

We identified three research questions to be addressed as follows:

RQ1: What is the level of employability skills among trainees in industrial training institutes?

RQ2: Are there any differences in the level of employability skills between genders?

RQ3: What are the factors that contribute to a higher level of employability skills?

4 Methodology

4.1 Mixed-method approach

This study researches modern apprenticeship training in industrial training institutes in Malaysia. It uses grounded theory and analyses data on employability skills such as basic skills, thinking skills, resource skills, information skills, interpersonal skills, system and technology skills and individual characteristics.

4.2 Participants and research instruments

Questionnaires were adopted from Mohammad Sattar et al. (2009) and were used as instruments to measure employability skills. The questionnaire was divided into two section: (a) demography and (b) skills constructs including basic skills construct, thinking skills construct, system and technology skills construct and individual skills construct.

Random sampling method was used for data collection. Samples included trainees from various disciplines and of different genders. A total of 35 respondents, who were undergoing on-the-job training, responded to the questionnaires. 13 out of 35 respondents were further interviewed to explore the factors contributing to higher levels of employability skills. Interviews were also conducted with employers and academic staff.

4.3 Limitations

This study is limited to one industrial training institute, the Industrial Training Institute of Kuala Lumpur (ILP). The institute was chosen as a recognized training institution, e.g. a center of excellence for industrial training in the automotive sector.

4.4 Data analysis

• Quantitative data was analyzed using the software SPSS version 19. Analysis was conducted of frequency, mean, standard deviation, t-test and correlation to answer the aforementioned research questions. Interpretation of results is based on the following information.

• Qualitative data was analyzed usingthe software NVivo version 8. Open-ended question were followed by verbatim transcription in which open, axial and selective coding was utilized.

5 Study results

5.1 Quantitative research

5.1.1 Gender distribution and demographic information of respondents

Table 1 shows gender distribution and demographic information of respondents involved in the study. Data shows that 71.4 per cent of respondents were male and 28.6 per cent were female. It also indicates that 85.7 per cent of respondents are living in urban while 14.3 per cent of respondents live in rural areas.

Table 1: Gender distribution and location

5.1.2 Mean and standard deviation analysis of employability skills

Table 2 shows that trainees have a high level of basic skills (Mean = 3.82, SD = 0.58). This indicates that training institutes are effectively imparting these skills.

Table 2: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of the basic skills construct

Table 3 shows that trainees possess thinking skills at a high level (Overall Mean = 3.97, SD = 0.52).

Table 3: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of the thinking skills construct

Table 4 shows that trainees possess a higher level of resource skills than basic and thinking skills (Mean = 4:14, SD = 0.53). This result indicates that trainees have well-developed skills to explore available resources.

Table 4: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of the resource skills construct

Table 5 shows the mean and standard deviation for information skills. Results indicate that trainees have a high level of information searching skills (Mean = 3.89, SD = 0.53). These skills are important for trainees to find material and information, and to improve their learning outcomes.

Table 5: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of the information skills construct

Table 6 shows data on interpersonal skills which provides information on how trainees socialize. Results show that trainees have a high level of interpersonal skills (Mean = 4:14, SD = 0.54).

Table 6: Mean and standard Ddviation (SD) of the interpersonal skills construct

Table 7 shows data on system and technology skills. It indicates that trainees have a high level of these skills (Mean = 4:02, SD = 0.55) and are, therefore, able to use systems and technology well. This ability can help trainees to become highly skilled.

Table 7: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of the system and technology skills construct

Table 8 shows the outcome for individual skills which vary according to individual understanding. Trainees seem to possess individual skills at a higher level than other skills (Mean = 4.50, SD = 0.31) which clearly indicates that training institutes have developed a training system that enables trainees to acquire this competence without friends’ help

Table 8: Mean and standard deviation (SD) of the individual skills construct

Table 9 shows the differences between genders in terms of skill constructs that fall under employability skills. The results show that there are no significant differences between the genders in relation to employability skill, except in terms of interpersonal skills. This outcome indicates that men and women think and act differently in regard to interpersonal relations.

Table 9: T-test analysis of differences in employability skills between genders

Table 10 shows the correlation between the skill constructs under the broader term of employability skills. Results indicate that all skill constructs are important for increased level of employability skills.

Table 10: Correlation analysis on the relationship between different constructs of employability skills  (f=35)

Results show that the highest mean for individual skills is 4.5 and the lowest 3.82, which is still considerably high. Overall results shows that trainees possess a satisfactory level of employability skills. The relatively high level of skills could be attributed to synergies between training institutions and the industry.

5.2 Qualitative research

The study explores factors that contribute to the development of employability skills among respondents. Findings show that there are six main factors that influence the development of high levels of employability skills (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Factors influencing the level of trainees’ employability skills

The following are some statements and conclusions drawn from the qualitative discussions:

• Trainees’ characteristics

Trainee characteristics seem to contribute to the formation of high levels of employability skills.

“I’m really interested in my studies. That’s why I managed to be among the outstanding trainees here”.

• Trainees’ relationships with others

Students’ employability skills seem to be enhanced through their relationship with others inside and outside their training institution. Relationships with parents, the community, employers, seniors, and co-workers play an important role. Since Malaysia is a Muslim country, the relationship with God seems to also be quite important.

“Friends and supervisors helped me, as well as the work here. During practical workshops, if there is a problem, I ask my friend. If they do not know, then I consult with my seniors”.

• Instructors’ industry experience

An instructor’s industry experience is an important factor that can support students’ development of technical and employability skills. Trainees appreciated the fact that their supervisors shared their industry experiences with them. They felt that supervisors gave them a true picture of the work environment.

• Instructors’ pedagogical skills

Instructors’ pedagogical skills seem to play a key role in ensuring improved levels of employability skills.

“Supervisors show us how to do things before we do them on our own. Subsequently, we are able to do the job by ourselves, and if there are any mistakes, the lecturer will help”

“I love the way our lecturer teaches. He gives us a reason to practice.”

• Curriculum and training system

A training system is necessary to ensure quality of training and a recognized level of trainee skills. Findings show that the system of curriculum-based training and industry involvement can help trainees to successfully transition from school to work.  

 “During industrial training, I found that the work environment is similar to the training environment in the Industrial Training Institutes (ILP). This makes it easier for me to adapt to the working environment”.

“I am grateful for the training I get in the Industrial Training Institutes (ILP) as it helped me to become a good employee. Good lecturers and facilities helped me to succeed”.

• Training facilities

Training facilities need to comparable with those used in the industries.  

“Training facilities used in our institute are the same as available in the industry. This allows us to practice using the latest technology and gives us the comparative advantage in the workplace”.

“We are given the opportunity to try all the manufacturing tools to gain experience, but due to insufficient time, we were unable to use all of the available machines.”

6 Findings

Employability skills are skills needed by trainees to increase their employability and chances of being promoted based on their satisfactory work performance. Overall, the study results showed that trainees possess a high level of employability skills. Correlation analysis was used to examine the skill constructs which all seem necessary for trainees. The findings meet the purpose of this study which is to find the basis for a set of skills that are important for trainees to become employable k-workers. It should be mentioned that all trainees who filled in the questionnaires, completed their industry training with good results based on employer reports.

This study also showed that the training institute administrators recognize the skills gaps, and should therefore take the initiative to ensure that employability skills are developed in students. This is important because, not only technical skills, but also employability skills are now a priority for industries (Rasul et al. 2009).

In addition, the study showed that there is no significant difference between genders with regards to employability skills, except in relation to interpersonal skills. These findings are inconsistent with the findings of Shakir (2009) who found different skill levels between the sexes. The current study established that the only difference exists in the level of interpersonal skills.

Finally, qualitative data shows that that there are six key factors that influence the development of high levels of employability skills: (1) trainees’ characteristics, (2) trainees’ relationships, (3) instructors’ industry experience, (4) instructors’ pedagogical skills, (5) curriculum and training systems and the (6) training facilities.

7 Conclusion

The issue of skill gaps and mismatches between skills imparted by vocational institutes and skills needed by employers can be addressed if trainers have the requisite skills and operate in adequate environments. The factors making up this holistic approach to developing employability skills include trainees’ characteristics, trainees’ relationships inside and outside the training institute, instructors’ industry experience, instructors’ pedagogical skills, curriculum and training systems, and the quality of training facilities. Divergence between learning outcomes and labour market needs can be addressed if trainees are able to adapt to new working environments and have the ability and motivation to continue learning. Trainees who start with little knowledge can thus become k-workers supporting the development of their country.

To establish a holistic picture of employability skills for k-workers, we will continue the study using grounded theory methods to explore the social processes that form the basis for high levels of employability skills among trainees.

References

Awang, A.H., Hamzah, A., & Rahmah, I. (2004). Kemahiran Bolehkerja: Keseimbangan Antara Tuntutan Majikan dan Penguasaan Pelajar. PersidanganKebangsaan Penyelidikan Siswazah Pengajian Pendidikan .

Bakar, A.R. & Hanafi, I. (2007). Assessing Employability Skills of Technical-Vocational Students in Malaysia. In: Social Sciences, 3(4), 202-207.

Bakar, A.R., Shamsiah Mohamed, & Ramlah, H. (2013). An Assessment of Workplace Skills Acquired by Students of Vocational and Technical Education Institutions. In: International Education Studies, 6(11), 15–20. doi:10.5539/ies.v6n11p15.

Bekri R. et al. (2011).Penguasaan Core Abilities Pekerjaan Dalam Kalangan Graduan Diploma Kemahiran Malaysia Penyejukan Dan Penyaman Udara: Satu Kajian Kes. Prosiding Seminar Serantau Kelima Tahun 2011 Universitas Riau, Pekan baru dan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia pada 12 – 14 Mei 2011, Pekan Bau Riau, Indonesia.

Berntson, E., Nääswall, K., & Sverke, M. (2011). Investigating the relationship between employability and self- efficacy : A cross-lagged analysis. In: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 17(4), 413-425.

Cassidy, S. (2006). Developing employability skills: peer assessment in higher education. In: Education + Training, 48(7), 508-517.

Pusat Latihan Pengajar & Kemahiran Lanjutan (CIAST) (2007). Laporan Kaji Selidik ‘Employability’ Lepasan Graduan ILJTM Majlis Konvokesyen ILJTM tahun 2006.

Fitrisehara, K., Hamzah, R., & Bakar, A. R. (2009). Employability Skills Among the Students of Technical and Vocational Training Centers in Malaysia. In: European Journal of Social Sciences, 9(1), 147-160.

Fuller, A., & Unwin, L. (2003). Learning as Apprentices in the Contemporary UK Workplace: creating and managing expansive and restrictive participation. In: Journal of Education and Work, 16(4), 407-426. doi:10.1080/1363908032000093012.

Gainer (1988). ASTD Update: Basic Skills.

Guile, D. & Young, M. (1998). Apprenticeship as a conceptual basis for a social theory of learning. In: Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 50(2), 37–41.

Gurvinder Kaur Gurcharan Singh & Sharan Kaur Garib Singh. (2008). Malaysian Graduates’ Employability Skills. In: UNITAR E-JOURNAL, 4 (1), January 2008.

Harvey, L. (2001). Defining and Measuring Employability. In: Quality in Higher Education,  7, 2, 97-109.

Hesketh, A. (2000). Recruiting an elite? Employers’ perceptions of graduate employment and training. In: Journal of Education and Work 13 (3), 245-71.

Kay, C., Fonda, N., & Hayes, C. (1998). Growing an innovative workforce: a new approach to education and training. In: Education + Training34(3), 267-275.

KilPatrick, S. & A1len, K. (2001). Review of research: factors influencing demand for vocational education and training courses. Kensington: National center vocational education research.

Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning – Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lesgold, A., Feuer, M.J. & Black, A.M. (1997). Transitions in Work and Learning: Implications for Assessment. Washington: National Academy Press.

Maizam, A. & Razali, H. (2013). TVET agency-industry collaborations: addressing diversity. In: The Online Journal for Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Asia, 1(1), 1-15.

Ministry of Human Resources (2011). Kajian Tahap kebolehkerjaan graduan persijilan kemahiran Malaysia di Institut Latihan Kemahiran Awam.

Mohd. Gazali Abas. (2011). Isu-isu semasa Dalam Pendidikan Latihan Teknikal dan Vokasional di Malaysia. JPM. Unit Perancang Ekonomi. Kuala Lumpur.

Mohd Yusof Husain, Seri Bunian Mokhtar, Abdul Aziz Ahmad, & Ramlee Mustapha (2010). Importance of Employability Skills from Employers’ Perspective. In: Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7(C), 430–438. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.059.

Nilsson, S. (2010). Enhancing individual employability: the perspective of engineering graduates. In: Education + Training, 52(6/7), 540–551. doi:10.1108/00400911011068487.

Noraini Mohd Noor & Noor Murni Abd Sukor (2008). Penerapan Kemahiran Employability di Institut Latihan Perindustrian Pasir Gudang Johor.

Nurita, Shaharudin & Ainon (2004). A survey of students’ employability skills: A case of Unitar.

Omar, M.K., Bakar, A.R. & Rashid, A.M. (2012). Employability skill acquisition among Malaysian community college students. In: J. Soc. Sci., 8, 472-478.

Overtoom, C. (2000). “Employability skills: An update.” ERIC Digest No. 220.

Quek Ai-Hwa (2005). Learning for the workplace: a case study in graduate employees’ generic competencies. In: Journal of Workplace Learning, 17, 4,231-242.

Rajiv Rasikchandra Malkan (2009). Post-Secondary Technical Vocational Education Training: A Qualitative Case Study of Industrial Training Institute (ITI) In Maharasthra State, India. PhD Dissertation of the Graduate College at the University of Nebraska.

Rasul, M.S. et al. (2009). Aspek Kemahiran “Employability” yang Dikehendaki Majikan Industri Pembuatan Masa Kini (Aspects of Employability Skills Needed by the Manufacturing Industries Employers). In: Jurnal Pendidikan Malaysia, 34(2), 67–79.

Shakir, R. (2009). Soft skills at the Malaysian institutes of higher learning. In: Asia Pacific Educ. Rev, 10, 309-315.

Safarin & Kamarudin (2004). Kemahiran Generik – Kepentingannya Dalam Memenuhi Kepeluan Majikan Masa Kini. Prosiding National Conference on Graduate Research in Education.

The Conference Board of Canada (1996). Employability Skills. Ottawa Ontario.

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) (2012). Kajian Tahap Penerimaan Masyarakat Terhadap Latihan Kemahiran. Report.

Yahya Buntat & Muhammad Rashid Rajuddin (2004). “Aspek-Aspek Penting dalam kemahiran Employability.” In: Buletin Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, no. 2, 3.

[1]On 19 May 2004, the government of Malaysia decided to implement the National Dual Training System (NDTS). It created an agency under the Ministry of Human Resources, the Department of Skills Development (DSD), previously known as the National Vocational Training Council (NVTC), responsible for the introduction and implementation of the NDTS system. This initiative is expected to stimulate the production of k-workers to meet the rapid development of the nation towards vision 2020. NDTS was introduced to produce k-workers under a comprehensive and updated training system and to meet the needs of the industries (Wan Seman, 2007)

Citation

Che Rus R., Yasin R. M., & Rasul, M. R. (2014). From zero to hero: Becoming an employable knowledge worker (k-worker) in Malaysia. In: TVET@Asia, issue 3, 1-16. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue3/che-rus_etal_tvet3.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2014).