The special issue starts with an article by VI HOANG DANG and THUY THANH NGUYEN (Ho Chi Minh University of Technology and Education, Vietnam) who investigate the adoption of formal and non-formal training programmes within Vietnam’s manufacturing sector. The study, based on a survey of 162 companies in electronics, food and beverage, and garment industries, coupled with in-depth interviews, reveals a pronounced preference for in-employment training due to its perceived effectiveness in addressing industry-specific skill gaps. Non-formal training emerges as a strategic approach for ensuring future competitiveness in a dynamically evolving sector. While formal TVET programs receive positive evaluations, their enthusiasm is tempered, particularly for lower-level positions. The study advocates for a balanced approach, recognizing the complementary roles of formal and non-formal training, while urging enhancements in the formal TVET system to enhance labor-market relevance.

SHEIKH SHAHANA SHIMU (BRAC Institute of Educational Development, BRAC University) conducts a comprehensive study on the inclusiveness and efficiency of skill formation in the Bangladeshi garment industry, with a specific focus on enhancing women’s participation and relative positions. Drawing on survey data from 100 garment companies, case studies of nine selected companies, and interviews with stakeholders from training institutes, government agencies, and industrial associations, the research evaluates the social impact of vocational education and training (VET) on women’s participation and positions in the labour market. The study highlights the underrepresentation of women in both formal and non-formal TVET programs, attributing it to negative social attitudes and challenging work environments. It concludes by advocating for an inclusive skills formation regime to bolster women’s roles and positions in the garment industry and the broader labor market.

KARA CHAN, MAGGIE FUNG, JUSTIN LAU, MANDY TSE and JASMINE ZHANG (Hong Kong Baptist University), present a case study on the impact of an Applied Learning course, “Multimedia Storytelling,” introduced in 2022. Aimed at preparing secondary school students for the creative media industry, the curriculum team implemented three co-curricular activities in line with Kolb’s experiential learning model. This paper delves into the learning objectives, activity design, instructional strategies, and resource support, drawing on teacher observations and post-activity surveys. Results indicate significant improvements in students’ personal, cognitive, and social dimensions, particularly in confidence and collaborative skills. The study recommends the incorporation of intensive skill-training opportunities in vocational education, emphasizing the need for financial support due to the resource-intensive nature of such activities.

The study by KEONAKHONE KHOUNVILAY (National University of Laos), SANTIPHAP MEUNMANY (Ministry of Education and Sport, Lao PDR), BOUNSENG KHAMMOUNTY (Vocational Education Development Institute, Lao PDR) and MICHAEL MORLOK (orange & teal, Switzerland) scrutinizes skills shortages, growth, and transformation in Lao PDR‘s manufacturing industry. Surveying 144 formal sector companies, with a focus on the Garment and Food & Beverage industries, the study reveals substantial growth and resilience in these sectors. Despite skills shortages, particularly in Food & Beverage, companies prioritize hands-on skills and on-the-job training over formal education. The article underscores the imperative for an enhanced TVET system to align with industry demands and foster the continued growth of the manufacturing industry in Lao PDR.

In their contribution, AZAREEL A. SUMAYA (TESDA-LLDA Provincial Training Center, Philippines) and RUTH A. ORTEGA-DELA CRUZ (University of the Philippines) provide a descriptive overview of the technical vocational education and training (TVET) system and discuss challenges it faces in developing skills for the tourism sector in the Philippines. A combination of secondary data analysis together with focus group discussions and key informant interviews of the trainers and graduates were employed for it.  Findings showed that the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) Women’s Center conforms to the national goals of TESDA, but objectives are limited to core competencies only. The Women’s Center programs employ a modified competency-based training approach with uniquely designed curricula that includes more hours, various modes of learning and methods of training. The challenges encountered were the time-consuming process of realigning instruction and assessment to the twenty-first-century skills, and in maintaining a conducive learning environment. By addressing these challenges, TVET can play a pivotal role in shaping a competent workforce for the future of tourism.

The paper by ADAM VOAK (James Cook University, Australia), ABDULLAH HELMY (State Polytechnic of Malang, Indonesia), BRIAN FAIRMAN (James Cook University, Australia), and ANGGI AFRIANSYAH (National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia), critically examines Indonesia‘s attempts to reform its education system that has, for decades, been strongly shaped by the largely colonially imposed Further Education Framework. In particular, the study scrutinizes a new vision of emancipated learning, known as Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM), that is aimed at crafting a more de-centralised, localised and industry-based response to skills development in Indonesia. The study finds that that MBKM’s acceptance has not been universal, with many stakeholders questioning the policy’s implementation, motives and ongoing sustainability. In conclusion, the study allows a better understanding of the impacts of the implementation of MBKM, and defines the potential challenges and opportunities which will be faced by educational institutions as they go about implementing such a radically different policy initiative.

In his text on the case of Cambodia, NARON VEUNG (Cambodia Development Resource Institute) investigates the significance of collaboration in the TVET sector of that country. Using qualitative data, the article explores diverse forms and degrees of collaboration between training providers and companies while addressing the associated challenges. The findings uncover various collaborative activities, such as student internships, job announcement dissemination, curriculum development, consultative meetings, and workplace visits. However, issues like limited funding, resource constraints, and a lack of mutual benefits hinder the intensification and regularity of these collaborations. The study emphasizes the need to address these challenges for fostering closer and more effective partnerships between training providers and private companies in the Cambodian TVET sector.

The special issue closes with a text by BOUNSENG KHAMMOUNTY (Vocational Education Development Institute, Lao PDR), MARKUS MAURER (Zurich University of Teacher Education, Switzerland), and SOMPHAVANH KHAMSANG (Vocational Education Development Institute, Lao PDR) who investigate the crucial role of industry experience for the effectiveness of TVET teachers. Focusing on the garments, food processing, and electronics industries in Lao PDR, the study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining a quantitative survey with qualitative semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal a lack of industry experience among TVET teachers, primarily attributed to poor cooperation between training providers and industrial enterprises. The article proposes strategies to enhance collaboration, facilitating TVET teachers’ immersion in industry settings for more robust professional development.

The Editors of Issue 22: 

Markus Maurer, Stephanie Allais, Bounseng Khammounty, & Seyhah Ven

CITATION:

Maurer, M., Allais, S., Khammounty, B., & Ven, S. (2024). Editorial Issue 22: Skills for Industry: The Role of Vocational Skills Development in the Context of Industrial Transformation. In: TVET@Asia, issue 22, 1-3. Online: http://tvet-online.asia/startseite/editorial-issue-21[BA1] / (retrieved 19.01.2024).

This document is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs3.0 License

This study examines skills shortages as well as growth and transformation in the manufacturing industry in Lao PDR and explores training preferences of employers in the sector. The research draws on a survey of 144 formal sector companies, focusing on the Garment, and Food & Beverage industries. The results reveal that both industries have undergone significant growth and transformation. The Food & Beverage sector has witnessed remarkable expansion, while the Garment industry has demonstrated resilience and adaptability. Although some skills shortages exist, particularly in the Food & Beverage industry, the study finds surprisingly few challenges in filling positions despite rapid economic growth. Manufacturing companies prioritize hands-on skills and experience over formal education when hiring. They provide on-the-job training to upskill employees with low levels of education. Most companies do not rely on training provided by formal training institutions, as they perceive TVET graduates as lacking the necessary skills and experience. This article highlights the need for a more accessible and effective TVET system to meet the demands of the labor market and contribute to the growth of the manufacturing industry in Lao PDR.

 Keywords: TVET, Growth and transformation, Skills shortage, manufacturing industries, Lao PDR.

1        Introduction

Between 2000 and 2019, the economy of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) grew at an annual rate of 7 %. This rapid growth can be attributed to a combination of capital investment and productivity increases, not least in the natural resource sector (Asian Development Bank 2022). Despite a temporary slowdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic, by 2022, the country had already resumed its rapid growth trajectory. After growing 2.5% in 2021, the Lao PDR economy has accelerated to 3.8% in 2022 (World Bank 2022). Recognizing the importance of fostering a dynamic economy, the Laotian government has prioritized the growth and promotion of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) as a means for developing human capital. This commitment is evident in the TVET development plan for 2021–2025 as well as other important strategic documents (e.g., the 10th Party Resolution, the 8th Five-Year National Socio-Economic Development Plan of the Government, and the Strategic Plan for Poverty Reduction (Ministry of Education and Sports 2020)). Through the Strengthening Technical and Vocational Education and Training (STVET) project, funded by the Asian Development Bank, Lao PDR has witnessed a 25 % increase in the number of workers with formal TVET qualifications in the labor force between 2011 and 2021. The ultimate goal of this project, and the government agenda more broadly, is to establish an accessible TVET system that can effectively meet the demands of the labor market, leading to a more skilled and diversified workforce. According to UNESCO’s 2020 TVET country profile, there are three primary challenges that need to be overcome in relation to TVET education. First, there is a lack of sufficient financial support for TVET schools, exacerbated by an absence of appropriate financing schemes. Second, persistent skills mismatches exist, partly attributable to inadequate training resources and equipment, coupled with a deficiency in teaching skills and industry experience among faculty members. Lastly, TVET struggles with a diminished appeal when contrasted with general education. Various studies have examined skills shortages and the role of TVET in Lao PDR. For instance, Leuang (2016) found that graduates from TVET institutions frequently express frustration over their inability to transition into the industry after completing their training. The author attributes this to inadequate training provided by TVET institutions, leading to a sense among graduates of being poorly prepared for the job market. Interviewing students and teachers, Harada et al. (2018), on the other hand, found that TVET education and certificates are seen as aligned with job market needs, particularly in hospitality and construction. Acknowledging outdated curricula, TVET teachers actively compensate with internet resources, and collaborating with teachers from other disciplines or institutions. The authors also found that TVET students prioritize practical and economic aspects, contrasting with university students who focus more on self-realization and societal contributions. Luangaphay and Vida (2023) explored how factors such as gender, age, marital status, ethnicity, and education influence employment status. With the help of a household survey, Chea and Huijsmans (2014) researched informal household-based apprenticeships and privately organized, commercial classroom-based training, and they found that these played an important role in the informal economy. However, despite these valuable insights, very few, if any, studies have explored the private sector’s perspective. This article aims to contribute to the existing literature in this area. While acknowledging that the study is limited to 144 companies in the formal sector, and primarily enables descriptive statistics rather complex causal analysis, we believe that giving voice to the manufacturing companies adds an important perspective to the ongoing discussion.

This article seeks to address the following research questions: What kind of growth and transformation can be observed in the manufacturing industry? What are the skills requirements and skills shortages perceived by employers? And what types of training programs or qualifications are preferred by the manufacturing industry in Lao PDR to enhance workforce skills? 

Key findings from our research include:

• The manufacturing industry in Lao PDR has experienced a period of remarkable growth and transformation.
• Given the growth rates, and the outflow of labor to neighboring Thailand and within the country to extracting industries, it is surprising not to see more skills shortage reported.
• A reason could be that the industry has a long history of compensating a lack of education by upskilling, primarily through informal learning, workers that the companies hire at the factory gates. 
• This would also explain why there is little difference between occupational levels with regard to skills shortages. Supervisors and technicians are internally promoted rather than externally recruited.
• The interviews confirmed that both production and HR managers prioritize hands-on skills and experience over education or qualifications when hiring. 
• Companies seem to be reluctant to trust TVET qualifications—they do not find any difference between those with such qualifications and other workers, or are unable to access the few TVET graduates in the first place.

By examining these crucial aspects, this study sheds light on the intersection of TVET, manufacturing industries, and growth in Lao PDR, offering insights for policymakers, educators, and industry stakeholders alike.

2        Methodology

The study is part of a larger research program aiming to investigate the relationship between TVET and transformation and inclusive growth in manufacturing industries. In Lao PDR, the focus was on three industries: Garments, Food & Beverage, and others (cement, plastic product, assemble motorcycle). Three main sources were used for the study: a survey conducted in 2018 covering 144 companies; as well as 32 more detailed interviews with representatives of 16 companies, conducted in 2019. The companies are situated in Champasak, Khammuane, Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, Xayabury, Vientiane and Vientiane Province (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Provinces where company interviews took place (source: STEPMAP)

For the survey, lists of formally registered companies with 50 or more employees were created for each industry, and either the full population or a random sample was invited to participate. Because the number of large companies in Lao PDR is quite small, the threshold was later dropped to 25 employees or more. 144 companies were surveyed altogether: 54 garment companies, 44 food and beverage companies, and 46 companies from the remaining manufacturing sector. The survey covered areas such as skills shortages, formal training programs, employment numbers and trends, salaries and non-monetary compensation, changes in products, machines and technology, and sales and investments. The company interviews focused on how formal skills development programs affect work organization and technology use, and identified internal and external factors – such as industrial strategy, industrialization trajectory, and national vocational education – affecting these relationships. Furthermore, data on training uptake was collected. The interview sample was drawn from the companies participating in the survey; 16 companies were selected altogether (6 garment companies, 6 food and beverage companies and 4 other companies); care was taken to include both growing and non-growing companies. In each company, the production manager and human resources manager were interviewed. The survey and interview responses were analysed as a whole, but also separately for the individual industries as well as for five occupational levels, to identify patterns and trends in the data. 

The occupational levels were defined as follows: General workers, as the name suggests, perform simple and routine physical or manual tasks. These workers are responsible for basic tasks that do not require specialized skills or knowledge. Operators, on the other hand, are responsible for operating machinery and electronic equipment. They are also responsible for maintenance and repair of electrical and mechanical equipment, as well as manipulation, ordering and storage of information. Operators typically require specialized knowledge and skills related to the equipment they operate. Supervisors, as a higher level of management, require an extensive body of factual and procedural knowledge. They have oversight of a group of operators and/or general workers and are responsible for ensuring that the work is performed according to established procedures and quality standards. Technicians are another specialized group of workers who typically perform complex technical and practical tasks. They require an extensive body of factual, technical, and procedural knowledge in a specialized field. These workers are responsible for tasks that require advanced technical knowledge and expertise; and the Higher management of the company consists of a group of high-level executives who actively participate in the daily supervision, planning, and administrative processes required by the establishment to help meet its objectives. These executives are responsible for setting the strategic direction of the company and ensuring that it operates efficiently and effectively.

One potential limitation, especially for the interviews, is the small sample size. The 16 companies and 32 respondents may not be representative of the entire manufacturing sector in Lao PDR, limiting the generalizability of the findings. The companies surveyed are part of the formal economy, while informality plays a large role in Lao PDR: the informal economy includes 73 % of non-agricultural employment. (According to the Labour Force Survey, this proportion has changed little between 2017 (75% informality) and 2023 (73%)) (ILOSTAT explorer n.d.). Additionally, the results could be skewed by the fact that only companies with at least 25 employees were sampled, which means that those that shrank in size below this threshold were not taken into consideration. Response biases may also be present, including recall bias (companies were asked to provide data for 2012 and 2017 while the survey and interviews were conducted in 2018 and 2019); social desirability or the desire to align figures with those reported to the authorities might also have played a part. Keeping such limitations in mind, and acknowledging that the results must be interpreted with the necessary caution, we believe that they still add value in a situation where there is sparse information to begin with.

3        Results and discussion

3.1       Growth and transformation in the manufacturing industry

The survey results show that the manufacturing industry in Lao PDR has experienced a period of remarkable growth and transformation. Notably, the Food & Beverage (F&B) sector has witnessed rapid expansion (see Figure 2), primarily fuelled by domestic elements such as population growth, socio-economic advancement, and evolving consumer demands.

Figure 2: Industrial growth: Change in sales volume between 2012 and 2017 (Source: Survey of 144 companies)

The influence of these factors is evidenced by changes within individual businesses. A representative from a pizza company illustrates shifts in customer demand by pointing to the extension of their menu: “The company has increased its menu offerings from 15 to 21 and added sizes from M and L to S, M, and L.” A company from the salt manufacturing sub-industry points to the adoption of new technology which has led to increased productivity: “During the past 5 years we have increasingly used solar energy to dry the salt. This method is more comfortable and reduces the environmental impact as we’re not burning wood. We brought two salt processing machines from Vietnam in order to reduce working time and increase product quality.” Infrastructure expansion, such as the development of a high-speed train line, and building construction more broadly, has prompted the cement manufacturing industry to adapt. As one industry insider put it, “Mostly it is about technology but it also depends on customers. For example, in the past we only produced cement [type] 525 and 325, but now in the railway construction project, we have to produce cement 425 according to the demand of the customers.” Other companies point to strategic decisions made by management or owners: “In the past the factory … consisted of a rice mill section, slaughter section, marketing section, as well as a material and warehouse section. If we hold too many working functions, it will deteriorate the quality of final product, therefore the rice mill was eliminated from the factory.” Growth has been further encouraged by the increasing influx of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the agriculture sector, which serves as the backbone of the F&B industry. Overall agricultural output grew by 6.3% per year from 1991 to 2010, and by 5.7% from 2010 to 2019 (ADB 2021). However, alongside these developments, there are also challenges. The food processing sector, despite its growth, is hampered by labor productivity issues. Factors such as inadequate workforce equipment, high taxes, complex tax regulations, inadequate infrastructure, and a shortage of labor skills contribute to this challenge. This is mirrored in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business ranking, which has seen a significant downturn: In 2019, Lao PDR was demoted to the 154^th position, from 139^th rank in 2015 (World Bank 2016; 2020). 

While it remains a major player within the Laotian economy, the garment industry’s growth has been stunted. In 2015, there were 92 garment factories, but in 2019 there were just 78 (Ramon Bruesseler 2021). Despite these obstacles, the garment industry has shown resilience and adaptability, and has undergone above-average transformation (see Figure 3), Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, garment factories fulfilling orders from overseas nations sought governmental approval to sustain their operations. The company diligently abided by the government’s disease control guidelines, ensuring a seamless response to customer requirements. Notably, the company rigorously adhered to the prescribed measures, successfully meeting its customer commitments. The survey and interviews show that the garment industry has embraced new technologies brought by foreign firms. Businesses have emphasized the delivery of high-quality products tailored to customers’ specifications, a strategy demonstrated by the rise in Cut-Make-Trim (CMT) manufacturing. 

Finally, companies sought to improve productivity through on-the-job training and upskilling. Many garment companies realize that on-the-job training was useful (“Our company has provided on-the-job training for production personnel trained by supervisor, abroad training for supervisors, and training at the company by foreigner experts supported and financed by company”).

Figure 3: Industrial transformation: Change in technology and machinery between 2012 and 2017 (Source: Survey of 144 companies)

In conclusion, the rapid growth in the F&B sector and the substantial transformation in the garment industry illustrate the dynamic landscape of manufacturing in Lao PDR. These changes have been driven by diverse factors, each sector responding differently to various stimuli and challenges. 

3.2       Skills shortage in the manufacturing industries but only when it comes to specific skill requirements

In Lao PDR, many manufacturing industries employed workers with low levels of education. Figure 4 depicts the distribution of employees with basic education, and those with diploma and higher education, across various job categories. Generally, within the operator workforce, there exists a diverse range of educational backgrounds. Approximately 28 % of factory operators possess only primary education, a trend particularly noticeable in small and medium-sized factories. These factories often recruit workers with lower educational qualifications and provide them with training to acquire various skills. Moreover, some factories also employ operators who have completed primary education, and their numbers are comparable to those without such qualifications. This is especially prevalent in garment factories, where a majority of operators are recruited from the pool of general workers, many of whom possess extensive experience. These experienced workers predominantly come from rural areas with limited access to education. On the other hand, technicians and supervisors typically have a higher level of education, with more than 80 % of them holding a high school diploma. Large factories, which offer competitive wages, tend to attract such candidates. A report by Homesana in 2019 sheds light on the demographic profile of female garment workers in Lao PDR. They are often young, unmarried migrants who have migrated from rural to urban areas and come from families engaged in low-income farming activities. These workers generally have minimal prior experience in waged employment, and their educational backgrounds tend to be modest.

Figure 4: Education of different occupation levels in the manufacturing industry. The categories are: uncompleted basic education, completed basic education (Year 9), completed upper secondary education (year 12), completed post-secondary/university education (year 12+). (Source: Survey of 144 companies)

The company survey shows that about half of the companies indicate some difficulty of recruiting qualified employees (see Figure 5) but there are only a few companies indicating “significant difficulty”. There is little difference between the occupational levels, which is surprising; however, this might be a reflection of roles being filled internally rather than externally (see above). There are many distinct differences between the industries, however: F&B indicates significantly larger needs than garments, probably because of the higher growth rate. The remaining industries lie somewhat in between the Garment and F&B industries when it comes to difficulties. Interestingly, there is a larger proportion of companies indicating “significant difficulty,” which could indicate that some sub-sector ones experience more pronounced issues. Because of the small number of companies covered, this aspect cannot be explored further presently.

It is surprising that the rapid economic growth has not resulted in more pressing needs and challenges to fill positions. In addition to the economic growth, there is also the fact that the mining and hydropower sectors have seen much investment and have expanded accordingly, and are capable of paying higher salaries (Phouthonesy 2021). Finally, many Lao workers have migrated to Thailand. According to the Thai Labour Ministry, as of May 2019, there were 278,000 Lao workers registered in Thailand. One can safely surmise that the number is likely higher than this official figure because of the number of undocumented migrant workers (ILO 2020).

From the interviews, it is clear that both production and HR managers prioritize hands-on skills and experience over education or qualifications when hiring for production line roles, especially for positions like sewing machine operators. The managers expressed their willingness to consider applicants without any formal educational background or certifications, offering necessary on-the-job training when required. “Education background is not our main concern. We emphasize experience and skills for the positions that they apply for; however, for operator positions, we don’t specify any criteria on qualification, including whether the applicant must have completed high school. Instead, the applicant should have the ability to operate a sewing machine.” The garment industry workforce typically consists of individuals from rural areas with secondary education or less. Recognizing the potential in these individuals, firms arrange training programs for new hires to increase their experience and practical skills. However, when it comes to F&B and other industries the recruitment of employees for an operation with distinct attributes necessitates a certain educational threshold.

At the same time, there seem to be significant differences between sectors and also type of companies. Small factories are accustomed to not being able to access the few qualified graduates, and focus instead on upskilling workers themselves. Larger companies can be more selective. While Luangaphay and Vida (2023) reported that most companies believe that employees must hold a bachelor’s degree or above to be eligible for employment,it must be pointed out that their study focused on the capital Vientiane and seemed to include companies from all industries in the industry and service sector. 

Figure 5: Skills shortage (“During the last 5 years, was it difficult to find employees for your establishment meeting your requirements?” (Source: Survey of 144 companies)

3.3       Contribution of vocational education and training to meeting the skills needs

In Lao PDR, much like other developing nations, the manufacturing industry often employs individuals with limited education, providing them with on-the-job training. This trend is driven by several factors. Primarily, Lao PDR’s labor market is characterized by a significant portion of the population having minimal education, resulting in an abundant pool of potential workers with lower qualifications. Manufacturers typically hire these individuals for roles not necessitating extensive education, such as entry-level or manual labor positions.

For other roles, companies address skills needs by providing induction, on-the-job, and upskilling training to workers. While pre-employment non-formal TVET training is almost non-existent for Supervisor/technician employees (see Fig. 6), some of it is available for operators. The latter group also benefits from greater opportunities for in-employment upskilling (in-employment training), that look like trend for the initial induction training for instance overview of the role and responsibilities, specific skills training and technical knowledge, mentoring or buddy system with experienced colleagues, on-the-job shadowing and observation: a majority of both operator and technician employees is undergoing this kind of training. 

Figure 6: Training uptake in the manufacturing industries. The categories are: induction, in-employment training within the company, in-employment training outside the company, pre-employment TVET not leading to nationally recognized qualification, pre-employment TVET leading to nationally recognized qualification. (Source: Survey of 144 companies)

Limited access to higher education or specialized vocational training in some areas of Lao PDR, and outward migration of workers to Thailand, contributes to hiring trends, as discussed above. Keeping these factors in mind, it is still striking that most companies do not rely on the training provided by formal training providers, as illustrated by the small proportions of workers with pre-employment training. 

Companies do not see their requirements being met currently: “Actually, we need mechanics with TVET knowledge and machinery working experience. Every year when we announce to look for new staff, I find many graduates [from technical colleges], but most of them don’t pass our standards. [They have] poor general knowledge, lower grades, poor English language skills, and are poor in soft skills. Thus we can’t get them”. Another company operating in plastic manufacturing found that non-qualified employees often performed better after learning the tasks in the companies (“There are two types [of employees]. They might be TVET graduates or graduates from a higher secondary school. We will take them to train. Some don’t have a certificate but they can do the work and improve themselves. Some people thought they have the knowledge, but when they come to work, they actually do not work well in our factory. Since 2010 we received lots of workers [from the technical colleges] but they are unsuccessful in our factory”). A third company sends their staff abroad because the knowledge required is too specialized (“It does not matter because there is no degree or course about cement production [in Lao PDR], we have to send our employees to train and study in China or Thailand. In Lao PDR, we only get people with degrees such as bachelor’s, master’s or PhD. They will be good in terms of ideas and leading, but regarding cement production they still need to learn more.”). Finally, other companies seem interested to recruit from TVET colleges, but they have difficulties attracting TVET graduates because they are too small (“um…we choose school education to work in administration office. In production line we need an undergone TVET but quite difficult to get them”) or have unattractive work conditions (“The factory needs TVET qualifications but most of the applicants didn’t like to work in our environment. There’s a strong smell inside the production line due to animal blood…”). 

4        Conclusion

In conclusion, the study shows that many manufacturing companies in Lao PDR have experienced rapid growth and transformation. Some skills shortages are reported, but given the growth rates, and the outflow of labor to neighboring Thailand and within the country to the mining industries, it is surprising that this has not become more of a problem yet. 

A reason could be that the manufacturing industry has a long history of training new workers to do specifically what is needed in their role, and not rely on training providers. Likewise, higher skills positions at the supervisor and technician level are filled by internally promoting workers rather than externally recruiting them. The interviews confirmed that both production and HR managers prioritize hands-on skills and experience over education or qualifications when hiring. As mentioned before, companies seem to be reluctant to trust TVET qualifications; they have not noticed any difference between workers who have such qualifications and those who do not, or they are not able to access the few TVET graduates in the first place. Significant skills shortages – which are currently only visible for certain profiles, and more strongly in “other industries” than in the F&B and garments industries (see Fig. 5) – might become more prevalent in the future, and start to impact growth and transformation eventually. Specifically, companies aiming to elevate their position in the value chains may find their technological “absorptive capacity” curbed if purely relying on upskilling themselves. There is also the issue that if companies invest in firm-specific skills only—due to the immediate utility of these skills, concerns about employee poaching, or workers relocating to Thailand—it might lead to an underinvestment of more general, transferable skills. While acknowledging that our results do not cover informal learning, it must be said that little training seems to be taking place. Interviewees highlighted several issues, such as small companies’ access to graduates and larger companies’ concerns about the quality and relevance of training.

While the results do not offer direct policy recommendations, they highlight challenges that necessitate further discussion and analysis. Effective solutions will likely require collaboration with companies, emphasizing the importance of including the private sector in these discussions. Fostering relationships across all levels, from policy discourse to practical cooperation with training providers, is essential.

 Acknowledgments

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to this research. We are grateful to Dr. Sengprasong Phrakonkham, Nongkhane Phatthana, and Hannes Teutoburg-Weiss for their assistance with collection, analysis, and interpretation of data in Lao PDR specifically. Their expertise and input were instrumental in helping us draw meaningful conclusions from our findings. We would like to thank everyone who has given us comments to earlier versions, including the participants at the Fair Transition conference in Johannesburg in May 2023. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the financial support provided by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), through their joint research program “R4D”, under the call “Employment” (SNSF grant number 400340_194006). We are deeply grateful for the contributions of all those involved in this project, and any errors or omissions are entirely our own.

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ILOSTAT explorer. (n.d.). SDG indicator 8.3.1 – Proportion of informal employment in total employment by sex and sector (%) Annual. Online: https://www.ilo.org/shinyapps/bulkexplorer19/?lang=en&id=SDG_0831_SEX_ECO_RT_A (retrieved 17.12.2023). 

Leuang, V. (2016). Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and the National Economic Development of Lao PDR. Master Thesis. Seoul: Ewha Womans University Seuol. 

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Phouthonesy, P. (2021). The Lao PDR Country Report’. In Han, P. & Kimura, S. (eds.): Energy Outlook and Energy Saving Potential in East Asia 2020. Jakarta: ERIA.

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World Bank. (2020). Doing Business 2020. Economy Profile Lao PDR. Washington D.C.: World Bank. 

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It is generally recognized that TVET teachers are better suited to impart relevant professional competencies if they themselves have extensive experience in the world of work (e.g., in industry or the trades). In many parts of the world, however, this is not the case, not least because many teachers go straight into teaching after an academic education. For this reason, policy makers have tried to integrate the acquisition of professional experience into the training of TVET teachers. The following article discusses this topic using the example of Lao PDR, in particular through an assessment of current levels of industry experience of TVET teachers in Lao PDR. The study used mixed methods: a quantitative survey (n = 74) and qualitative semi-structured interviews (n = 9). The article finds that the main reason for lack of industry experience amongst TVET teachers is poor cooperation between training providers and industrial enterprises. The article proposes ways to improve cooperation, so that teachers gain more experience in industry as part of their professional development. 

Keywords: TVET teachers, industrial experience, training provider-company cooperation mode

1        Introduction

Throughout the world, and in particular in the Southeast Asian region, there is a major deficiency in the number and quality of teachers in Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) (Axmann et al. 2015; Choomnoom 2022; Hassan & bin Ismail 2022; SEAMEO VOCTECH 2012). Both policy-makers and experts in the field agree, therefore, that teacher training for both pre- and in-service training of TVET teachers needs to improve and keep up with technological changes (Paryono 2015; World Bank, UNESCO, & ILO 2023). Furthermore, policy-makers claim that TVET teachers should ideally have hands-on experience of working in industries, as this gives them industry-relevant skills that they can then impart to students in an engaging way (Johnston et al. 2016). Instead, however, many TVET teachers enter the teaching profession directly after academic training, without ever having worked in any substantial way in the professional fields they teach. 

Numerous countries are therefore attempting to meet these challenges with reforms, for example, by adapting the admission requirements for the school service or by introducing innovations in the training of TVET teachers. Many reforms like these are being implemented in lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC), and not just in Southeast Asia, and often with substantial support from multilateral and bilateral donors. Despite these extensive efforts, such reforms have hardly been the subject of academic research. Against this background, the following article examines the case of Lao PDR, whose government – in cooperation with different international development partners – has taken measures through which TVET teachers should gain more experience in their respective vocational fields and improve cooperation between vocational schools and the world of work that would, in turn, facilitate the acquisition of industry experience by TVET teachers (Ministry of Education and Sports 2007; World Bank 2023).

The study is focused on four main research questions: 1) How much industry experience do TVET teachers in Lao PDR have and how did they get it? 2) What are the obstacles to gaining industry experience? 3) What modes of cooperation do TVET institutions and industrial companies have? 4) What are the obstacles to cooperation? 

The data presented here was collected in the context of the Skills for Industry project, which analyses industrial training in six countries in Africa and Asia. The sub-project on Lao PDR focussed on three industries that are particularly relevant in this country in terms of job creation in manufacturing: garment, food processing and electronics. A total of 144 companies were surveyed across these three sectors. In addition, with a view to writing this article, 74 TVET teachers were interviewed in the three industrial sectors mentioned above and in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine deputy directors. The two target groups were selected through purposive sampling from nine TVET institutes in Lao PDR. Table 1 provides some information about the sample of the 74 TVET teachers interviewed for this article:

Table 1: Data Distribution of Respondents’ Participants and Their Characteristics

The results of this article shed light on the challenges around TVET teachers’ acquisition of industrial work experience. In conclusion, we propose ways to overcome these challenges, by improving cooperation between TVET institutions and industrial enterprises in the arrangement of work experience for pre-service and in-service teachers. 

2        Discussion of the literature

There is widespread agreement in research that teacher quality has a significant impact on learning outcomes (Hattie 2012; Johnston et al. 2016; Köpsén 2014). The quality of teaching staff, in turn, is seen in the context of a large number of different factors, with some research focussing on characteristics of the teachers themselves (e.g., motivation, professional competencies) or on features of the respective educational systems that potentially have some influence on the quality of teaching staff (e.g., requirements for teacher training, conditions of employment). In the educational research literature, those contributions that deal with the professional competencies of teachers undoubtedly have a particularly central position. One of the main findings of this literature is that good teachers do not only have a high level of overarching pedagogical competences (e.g., classroom management, teaching methods, communication skills), but also substantive knowledge and skills in the subject areas they teach (Hattie 2023; Ma & Yuan 2018).

However, the research investigating such relationships, specifically with regard to TVET teachers, is not comprehensive. Such research would be important because very specific demands are being placed on TVET teachers. For instance, Itis expected – at least in conventional understanding in policy-making and in much of the relevant academic literature – that TVET ought to prepare students for the world of work and that the teaching should be geared to such an outcome. The teachers should thus have the required professional competencies, not only in terms of familiarity with the relevant instruments and working methods on a theoretical level – for example, through academic training in the relevant subject (e.g., engineering) – but also by knowing them from their own experience (Johnston et al. 2016; Köpsén 2014; Wagiran et al. 2019).

If there is little literature on the relationship between teachers’ work experience and the quality of vocational education and training, there are at least indications in the research that TVET teachers’ experience in the labor market is weighted differently depending on the education system. For example, in some countries with established TVET systems, the work experience of TVET teachers is considered to be very important, ensuring that vocational schools hire primarily teachers with many years of experience in vocational subjects, even if this is not necessarily required by law. The reasons for this are many, including the fact that employment at a vocational school is attractive even for people with the relevant professional experience (and the necessary academic degrees) (Boldrini & Wüthrich 2022; Driesel-Lange, Morgenstern, & Keune 2017). This prerequisite is much less important in many LMICs: here, individuals with the necessary academic qualifications and work experience in industry are often employed in comparatively high positions and would have to accept high salary losses if they entered the teaching profession. For this reason, TVET schools in many countries are mainly staffed by teachers who have completed academic training and – depending on the country – additional pedagogical training without any significant work experience (Bünning, Spöttl, & Stolte 2022; European Union 2014).

In this context, there are many efforts to promote the professional development of TVET teachers in LMICs, both in the area of pre- and in-service training. Some measures, e.g., in Malaysia or the Philippines, also aim to promote the industry experience of TVET teachers and are usually linked to efforts to promote the professional competencies of learners (Ahmad & Essien 2021; Clow 2001; Padillo et al. 2021). However, there is hardly any academic literature dealing with the impact of such reforms in the education and training of TVET teachers, with the exception of a few evaluations of individual projects, which, however, only marginally address the issue of teachers’ professional experience. This lack of literature on the training of TVET teachers is in striking contrast to the large amount of literature dealing with the training of teachers in the field of general education, especially in LMICs, in which the acquisition of practical teaching skills (and their reflection) as part of formal training, among other things, is intensively discussed (Ahmad & Essien 2021). A key finding of this literature is that the linking of theoretical and practical teacher training continues to be associated with major challenges (Lipsmeier 2013), a finding that is relevant to the present study in that it suggests that reforms in education and training often become challenging when it comes to their implementation.

3        Context Lao PDR: TVET system and teachers

In the following section, we present the context of TVET in Lao PDR that is relevant to our study. We focus first on the TVET system and then on teacher training in this part of the education system.

3.1       The TVET system: An overview

After completion of lower secondary education, students in Lao PDR have the choice of continuing to upper secondary general education or of entering upper secondary technical and vocational education and training (TVET). This TVET system comprises five levels (see Table 2).

Table 2: Ratio of theory to practice and duration of the curriculum (Source: Ministry of Education and Sports 2021)

Table 2 also shows that the share of practical learning is more than 50% at all levels. This learning is normally organized at school-based workshops (“TVET laboratories”). Despite the comparatively high share of practical learning, TVET continues to be criticized for its lack of practical orientation. Against this background, a curriculum and instructional reform started in 2011 which introduced competency-based training (CBT) and “dual-cooperative training” (DCT) to replace the traditional approach of vocational learning that was more focussed on the teaching of theory (Ministry of Education and Sports 2020). 

Clearly, the government considers TVET to be a key element in the country’s education and training system and therefore has the ambition to further expand it (Ministry of Education and Sports 2015). For this reason, stipend and voucher programs have been introduced and new dormitories have been established, particularly to reach female students from rural and minority ethnic communities. Furthermore, with different projects being financed with the help of bi- and multilateral donor agencies, TVET schools have been upgraded and been provided with more equipment. Yet, despite political commitment to strengthen TVET and external funding, enrolment in TVET programs has hardly increased over the years, currently enrolling no more than approximately 1 percent of all upper secondary students (UIS 2023).

While the challenges to expand enrolment in TVET suggest that it remains difficult to convince potential learners (and their parents) to choose TVET as their preferred option, various critical statements from employers were recorded in this study regarding the low level of relevance of TVET for the labor market. TVET graduates are often considered not to have the skills required by the world of work, which becomes an even more vital consideration given that the country’s economic structure and the technologies used in the different sectors are both changing rapidly. While these weaknesses are evidently a result of the lack of exposure of students to practical learning in the world of work, many observers are of the view that the lack of practical skills at the level of students also results from low teaching quality, particularly in view of the latter’s limited understanding of new equipment and professional resources as well as their own insufficient experience in the labor market.

3.2       TVET teachers in Lao PDR

As in many other countries, there are two types of TVET teachers in Lao PDR. On the one hand, theoretical teachers conduct teaching in a classroom or laboratory, while on the other hand, practical teachers carry out practical teaching in workshops and laboratories,.

While the training for practical teachers is hardly formalized, there are two qualification paths for theory teachers (see Figure 1): one path is via TVET, which requires that at least two years of training must be completed with a diploma (C4). As mentioned above (see Table 2), this training includes a certain amount of practical learning, although it is usually school-based. This training is then followed by a two-year training program at the Vocational Education Development Institute (VEDI). It focusses on studies in a vocational subject, includes pedagogical training, and can be completed with either a high diploma or a bachelor’s degree.

The other route is via a university course of at least four years in a subject relevant to TVET (e.g., mechanical engineering), which must be completed with a Bachelor’s degree. This university-based program is then followed by training at the aforementioned VEDI, which, however, is much shorter (70 hours).

Figure 1: Two paths to becoming a TVET teacher

For most TVET teachers, however, training at the VEDI does not take place immediately after the completion of the TVET Diploma or Bachelor’s degree. Rather, the TVET schools initially employ the teachers without the VEDI training, usually for two years. After these two years, the young teachers submit an application to VEDI, with which suitable candidates are proposed to the responsible national authorities (TVET Department) and the Minister for Education and Sports, after consultation with the vocational schools. Training at VEDI can only begin once this application has been approved, with approximately 200 students being admitted per year (VEDI 2021).

Whichever course is chosen at VEDI, the curriculum continues to be heavily weighted in favour of theoretical subjects. The only mandatory practical component is a pedagogical module, which includes an internship at a TVET institution, but there is no requirement for an extension of practical experience in the relevant industry. In fact, the TVET Teacher Standard defines three levels of industry experience (high: 171–240 days; medium: 51–170 days; low: less than 51 days) and even proposes that suitable TVET teachers should have at least 240 days of work experience in the professional field they teach before taking up permanent employment. As will be shown below, this latter requirement has not been met at all.

4       Analysis of industrial experience of TVET teachers and factors influencing it

The following will now discuss this article’s topic based on quantitative and qualitative data collected by us. In a first step, the results from interviews conducted with 74 TVET teachers in three industrial sectors will be presented, which focussed on their industry experience. The second section deals with the factors which, according to our analysis, are the cause for the lack of industry experience of TVET teachers.

4.1      Industrial experience of TVET teachers in Lao PDR

The survey of TVET teachers (n=74) revealed that a clear majority of them actually have no or a low level of experience in the field they teach, although this is now required.

Table 3: Level of industry experience among survey TVET teachers

The survey also found that most TVET teachers gained experience from non-official work (after teaching hours, on weekends, public holidays, etc.), which meant they sought industrial experience on their own; some gained experience by taking students to companies or by visiting students during internships which are organized by some TVET colleges. 

Yet, the survey also showed that there are certain differences in this regard between training sectors (see Figure 2). For example, the proportion of teachers with no industry experience is particularly high in “Garments” training sector (74.9%), while it is markedly lower in “Food processing” (51.92%) or “Electronics” (63.9%) sectors. 

Figure 2: Industrial experience of TVET teachers per industry sector

Certain differences can also be seen when looking at industry experience by level of education (see Figure 3). The share of those with no or a low level of industry experience is particularly high among those who have a Master’s degree or an even higher educational qualification (86.67%), while it is much lower among those who have only acquired a TVET qualification at the diploma level (40%).

Figure 3: Industrial experience of TVET teachers per education level

However, our data show that individuals who have little teaching experience and have recently completed their education as TVET teachers have comparatively more teaching experience than persons with many years of teaching experience: About a third of teachers with less than five years of teaching experience report having a high level of industry experience, whereas this proportion stands at approximately 9 percent among teachers with over 15 years of teaching experience. At the same time, among teachers with less than five years of experience, the proportion of individuals with little or no industry experience remains very high at 66 percent.

Figure 4:   Industrial experience of TVET teachers per wok experience

4.2      Reasons underlying the lack of industry experience

The reasons for the insufficient industrial experience of TVET teachers are numerous and will be discussed in this section in more detail based on the data collected. 

From the point of view of the teachers surveyed, the employment conditions, in particular, make it difficult for them to gain industry experience. First, most teachers are not employed part-time and therefore – unlike TVET teachers in some other countries – do not work in the industry on the side. Accordingly, work experience would have to be acquired alongside teaching activities. From the teachers’ point of view, however, there is usually no time to visit companies, especially if such companies are not located near the school. This challenge is evident in the Garments Programme, for example: although it is offered throughout the country, the industry is concentrated in a few, mainly urban, regions particularly in the Vientiane region close to the border with Thailand, where many investors come from.

From the teachers’ point of view, the acquisition of practical work experience is also made difficult by the lack of cooperation between schools and industrial companies: there is ever any contact between the two. This is certainly due to the great geographical distance in some cases. However, the lack of any contact also reflects a general disconnect between formal TVET and the world of work in Lao PDR: employment in the industry (for example, in the garment industry) does not require a formal vocational qualification (Maurer, Morlok, Khammounty, & Teutoburg-Weiss 2019). Accordingly, young people are often part of a TVET program not because they are looking for a job in the sector they are trained in, but because they hope to gain a recognized educational qualification that will also offer them further opportunities within the education system – as well as with a view to landing public sector jobs (e.g., as a teacher in TVET).

The missing link between schools and the world of work is also reinforced by the requirements for TVET teachers: those people with extensive work experience from the industry, for whom employment as a TVET teacher would be attractive in terms of the remuneration, do not fulfil the qualification requirements, in particular, because they mostly do not have the required higher Diploma or Bachelor’s degree. If they do have such qualifications and already work in the industry, they are usually in management positions, and so employment at a TVET school is generally not very attractive for them, either in terms of remuneration or social status. 

Finally, as the study also makes clear, the lack of industry experience among TVET teachers also results from the fact that there are hardly any incentives for teachers to gain industry experience: To date, neither employment as a TVET teacher nor the start of TVET teacher training has been linked to a corresponding requirement, and neither better remuneration nor improved career opportunities are guaranteed as a result of industry experience. The interviews conducted even suggest that the authorities are unable or unwilling to enforce that teachers should have the necessary work experience in the industry. Rather, there are many indications that the political intention to increase the industrial experience of TVET teachers does not correspond to a consolidated political will; instead, it essentially reflects an expectation of the bilateral and multilateral donors.

5       Discussion and conclusions

The article makes evident that a large majority of TVET teachers in Lao PDR have little or no work experience in the sector in which they teach. Although the study found some differences between the three sectors analysed (garments, electronics and food processing), overall, such work experience is not widespread, despite the efforts of education policy-makers. The article also makes it clear that the lack of industrial experience of TVET teachers is only one aspect of a general lack of links between the formal TVET programs and the world of work in Lao PDR. This confirms research findings which suggest that despite comprehensive reforms of TVET, especially in LMICs, the relevance of these training programs for the world of work is hardly increasing.

Despite these findings, it can be stated that the quality of formal TVET can only be improved if its links with the world of work increase. With regard to Lao PDR teachers, it is unlikely for the time being that a large majority of them will work in the industry for a long time in the future: the requirements for teachers and employees in the industry are simply too different at present. Nevertheless, in the medium term, only TVET teachers who actually have a minimum of industrial experience should be employed. If possible, this should be done before the start of teacher-training at VEDI, possibly as part of internships that can be organized by VEDI in cooperation with industry associations. If possible, these prospective teachers should be employed in the industry in such a way that a traineeship salary can be justified, which covers expenses in particular. Compliance with such a regulation should then be mandatorily demanded by the authorities.

With a view to addressing the global debate on quality in TVET, the case of Lao PDR makes it clear that even reforms that seem comparatively simple, in this case increasing the industrial experience of TVET teachers, often hardly make any progress due to challenges at the implementation level. It is therefore important to carry out a comprehensive assessment of not only the legal provisions, but also the relevant incentives for the relevant stakeholders to support such reforms.

References

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On 11^th February 2013 the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) declared by decree (cp. MoES 2013) the standards developed by the Faculty of Engineering as binding for the education of vocational teachers at bachelor level in Lao PDR. Which development preceded the enacting of this important decree?

All stakeholders involved in vocational education agree that the quality of vocational training in Lao PDR matches neither the requirements of the Lao labour market, nor the requirements of a future ASEAN market. At the same time, there is agreement about the fact that the quality of the training depends most crucially on the teachers’ competency. As a direct consequence the Ministry of Education and Sports appointed the Faculty of Engineering, more specifically the relevant Vocational Teacher Education Department (VTED), to develop standards for vocational teachers. The Faculty in turn, submitted to the Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP) the proposal to develop these standards embedded in a scientific study and in close cooperation with teacher education institutions in Indonesia (Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia), Thailand (Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi), and Vietnam (Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs).

The study describes the development process of the standards based on the current situation of the Lao education sector. To emphasize the practical relevance of the study, it also discusses the prerequisites for successful implementation of the drafted standards and makes a proposal for an implementation strategy.

The standards now serve as a basis for the development of vocational teacher curricula. They expressly highlight the specific particularities of vocational teachers and consider the cultural, ethical and political characteristics of Lao PDR. In this sense the standards are a valuable contribution to the improvement of the country’s vocational education system and may well stimulate debate on this in other Southeast Asian countries.

1 Background

Although its economy has grown remarkably in recent years, Lao PDR is still one of the least developed countries in the world. As a consequence, the Lao government has set the goal to shake off this status by 2020. Human resource development is the second of four main strategic development plans agreed at the IX Communist Party Congress (see Lao People’s Revolutionary Party 2011, 42). There is a persisting lack of skilled workers in Lao. Thus one of the most vital challenges here lies in the development of the vocational education sector, which currently simply does not meet the standards and requirements of Laos’ growing economy.

An important precondition for increasing the number of qualified workers is the availability of well-trained teachers. Previous studies have shown, however, that teachers at vocational schools are insufficiently qualified at the moment (see Soysouvanh et al. 2011, 13-27). It is imperative to improve vocational teachers’ training and qualification to attain the goal of providing the labour market with sufficient skilled workers to feed the growing economy. One important approach for improving the quality of the education systems is to develop quality standards and implement them.

In his speech to lecturers of the National University of Laos, given at a university meeting on 5^th April 2012, Mr Samane Viyaket, former president of the National Assembly of Laos, emphasized the importance of improving the training of teachers for the development of Laos explicitly: “In order to develop the country, human resource has to be developed, but first teachers must be developed.” Consequently, the teacher is the centre point around which education quality is improved. Moreover, teachers are not merely agents of knowledge transfer; they are vital people who advise, train and act in an exemplary manner.

The Strategic Plan for the Development of Technical and Vocational Education and training 2006–2020 lists the numerous weaknesses and the causes creating the low performance in the TVET system. One of the important reasons described by the plan for the weakness of the TVET system and the quality of teachers is as follows: “The quality of TVET teachers remains mostly very low; teachers lack practical experiences, because they have not been employed in companies or enterprises and/or trained in the pedagogical field before.” (MoE 2007, 8).

As a result, the Departments of Technical and Vocational Training (DTVE) and Higher Education (DHE) the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), articulated the goal, to be achieved by 2020, for vocational teachers: “Building up vocational teachers for different subjects (technical and pedagogical) at different levels within the country and abroad in order to provide teachers for all TVET institutions sufficiently according to their demand; upgrading teachers for technical and pedagogical subjects and upgrading TVET managers and administrative personnel continuously in order to enable them to follow the ICT development.” (MoE 2007, 11-12).

Improvement of the quality and quantity of the education of vocational teachers is all-important. The topic of this study is to create vocational teacher standards at bachelor level. In addition, the study deals with the implementation and evaluation of the results for the purpose of improving the implementation system in the future.

Nowadays, the initial and further education of vocational teachers in Lao PDR does not take place in a systematic manner. Some vocational education institutes (public and private) are permitted to conduct teacher education confined to their capacity and their own needs. If this is to continue, neither the country’s needs for a skilled workforce will be met, nor the living conditions of the population improved. (see Singthilath 2012, 2).

2 Reasons for the study

As mentioned already, the TVET sector in Lao PDR cannot meet with the expectations of the labour market in terms of both supply and demand. According to the Asian Development Bank, “The sector and labour market assessments indicate that TVET enrolments are declining in high-demand skill areas and where skill shortages are greatest (e.g., construction), and only a small proportion of companies recruit workers directly from TVET institutions and few companies have any relationship with TVET institutions” (ADB 2010a,  5).

Furthermore, the aforementioned assessments reveal, “employer and trade association interviews indicated a strong negative image of TVET. It was repeatedly stressed that TVET graduates at all levels have to be trained again by the economic units. The training currently being provided in TVET institutions was considered to be exclusively theoretical, and delivered by teachers (sometimes graduates from the TVET school) who do not have the necessary work experience or real skills” (ADB 2010a, 4). In the light of these reports it becomes all the more essential to separate the education of vocational teachers from their alma mater colleges in order to enable quality and evaluation at an academic level. Only then the vicious cycle can be interrupted in which poorly trained students stay at the same college to become poorly qualified vocational teachers to continue the insufficient training of a new generation of vocational students both perpetuating and even worsening the cycle.

A further difficulty is that vocational education, provided by the TVET-sector, increasingly falls short of the demand of the labour market. The labour market assessment identified “five major sectors of current and apparently likely continuing skills shortages” (ADB 2010b, 4): furniture, construction, construction sub-trades (masonry, carpentry, electrical, plumbing etc.), tourism and hospitality, mechanical maintenance and repair trades. The sobering forecast, identified by the assessment, is justified by the fact that the number of skilled workers (certificate level), trained by public TVET institutions under supervision of the MoES has dropped in recent years. 407 of 13,065 students were trained in 2006/07 at certificate level, while in 2008/09 the number dropped to 68 of 17,926. A reverse in this trend cannot be expected in the near future. On the one hand, training in these trades is not attractive to young people, because it has a bad image, on the other hand, the schools are not keen on offering sufficient training, because it is too expensive, too difficult and has a bad reputation that will also reflect on them socially. By contrast, higher diploma programmes (IT, business administration etc.) have become the fastest growing component of TVET, despite an even faster growing surplus of graduates. It can be expected, therefore, that skilled workers must still be recruited from neighbouring countries, Vietnam in particular, to fill the gap.

To provide TVET institutions in Laos with qualified teachers, the first study programme for vocational teachers at Bachelor level was established in September 2004 at the Vocational Teacher Education Department (VTED) at the Faculty of Engineering (FE) / National University of Laos (NUoL) supported by the Lao-German HRDME programme (Human Resource Development for a Market Economy).

Aside from VTED two further institutions are in charge of the education of vocational teachers. The Vocational Education Development Centre (VEDC) has been educating vocational teachers since 1999, albeit at the non–academic level of the Higher Diploma. Unfortunately, despite noteworthy national and international efforts and good progress, neither VTED nor VEDC are able to supply a sufficient number of well-trained teachers (less than 50/year). To alleviate the lack of well-trained teachers, not only VEDC but also several vocational colleges/schools, have been authorized by decree (MoES) to train vocational teachers up to bachelor level (continuing education) as well. Despite being authorized by the Ministry, these approaches have evolved in an uncoordinated manner disregarding commonly recognized standards.

To be able to make qualified statements about the quality of vocational teacher education at VTED, a tracer study was carried out in 2010/11 (cp. Soysouvanh 2011, 13-27). This study followed the aforementioned graduates of VTED providing insight into post-graduate development and experiences. Its aim, amongst many, was to comprehend how former students evaluated their studies in retrospect and what content in particular was important for their professional development. The results of this survey should enable VTED and all institutes of higher education involved in the training of vocational teachers in Lao PDR to indicate deficits in present study programmes and serve as a basis for future changes. This information is useful for the planning and accomplishment of further development of curricula.

When asked about practical relevance of teacher training the graduates certified they did not receive enough practical training. They were lacking sufficient practical exercises and internships related to their major subject as well as to the studies of vocational education and as a result did not feel well prepared for professional life. In particular, they demanded an improvement in practical exercises for the preparation and carrying out of actual lessons. Even though the interviewed graduates value their studies in general as highly beneficial it has become quite clear that the study course of vocational education needs to be fundamentally revised

In summary, it can be said that the TVET-sector of Lao PDR suffers from a bad image caused by its inability to cater to labour market needs and a lack of adjusting to market supply and demand.  This latter point concerns skill levels and the significant lack in sectors where training is most needed – and an insufficient number of vocational teachers, whose qualifications are considered less than sufficient for the market needs. One of the worldwide practiced solutions for improving the quality of education systems, albeit using different approaches, is the formulation of standards (see Bergmann/Mulkeen 2011). Aside from the formulation of standards for degrees in general education and vocational training, teaching standards are also becoming more prevalent.

3 Methodology

Developing standards for vocational teachers in Lao PDR the research team considered

• the theoretical foundation of standards for teachers,
• the specific national preconditions of Lao PDR,
• the experience and expertise of stakeholders as well as members of the RCP-platform,
• already existing standards, and
• supranational standard frameworks.

In conducting the study, a cyclical process has been adhered to. On the theoretical side, a literature review and an analysis of existing standards has been carried out. This is done to take account of the current state of scientific research. Many stakeholders were involved in the research process. Firstly, it was necessary to use the experiences of the persons involved and secondly to strengthen acceptance of the standards developed.

The analysis of literature provided the research team with knowledge on the theoretical foundation of standards, which has to be considered in the development process. According to the areas standards address, the literature distinguishes between institutional standards, process standards, and personnel standards. Moreover, in terms of grouping, Bergmann and Mulkeen (2011, 15) for instance use the terms input standards (defining resource inputs), process standards (related to the processes in education) and outcome standards (referring to learning outcomes or educational achievements). Referring to the purpose of educational standards they can be used (see TT-TVET Consortium 2009; Spöttl 2009)

• for supporting the quality development of educational programmes,
• for creating a common understanding of the quality and content of an educational programme, and
• as a basis for the mutual recognition of study achievements between different educational institutions.

Taking these diverse categories and purposes into consideration it is the study’s objective to develop outcome-oriented personnel standards, conducive to the development of curricula for the training of vocational teachers. The standards are applicable for supporting the quality of the education of vocational teachers, but they are not designed for testing and certifying teachers in the first instance.

To broaden the view of the research team and take part in the results collated by others, thus avoiding past mistakes, the decision was made to carry out a comparative analysis of already existing standards for general teachers from England, Germany, Laos and the USA and vocational teachers from Vietnam. These standards have been analysed for their adequacy as a resource for the development of standards for vocational teachers in Lao PDR. The analysis has been conducted using specific criteria, considering the formal structure, the target group and the purpose of the analysed standards, to find out which characteristics are absolutely crucial and which of these standards may serve as a role model.

For the development of standards of TVET teachers and in particular, to ensure the acceptance of these standards, it was clearly essential to involve the relevant stakeholders in Lao PDR in the process right from the beginning. The Lao stakeholders were chosen to be involved as the target groups in the development process for their significance in practical (e.g. Vocational Schools), political (e.g. Department of Higher Education/MoES) and academic (e.g. National University of Laos) terms and because these institutions represented either the demand or supply side of vocational teacher education. To learn from the experiences of other countries, that is to say institutions in South East Asia and benefit from their expertise, various vocational teacher education institutes, all of them members of the RCP-Platform, have also been involved in the development process.

At different stages of the research project, workshops were conducted with the involvement of the institutions mentioned above. The theoretical work – the foundation of educational standards and the analysis of existing standards – and the carrying out of the workshops have alternated.

At the last stage, the decision was made to correlate the standards evolved so far using the following supranational standard frameworks as benchmarks:

• “Information and Communication Technology – Competency Framework for Teachers” (ICT–CFT), published in 2008 and updated in 2011 by UNESCO
• “Teaching Competency Standards in Southeast Asian Countries”, published in 2010 by SIREP (SEAMEO INNOTECH Regional Education Program).

What were the reasons behind this correlation? Firstly, the very existence of these frameworks, to some extent, forced the team to take them into consideration when drafting the standards. Secondly, the institutions entrusted with the design of these frameworks, understand them as benchmarks for standard development. The research team considers the correlation as absolutely crucial and very useful. Most significantly, aspects that had not been taken into consideration could become visible. At the same time, the team could confirm it was on the right track.

4 Research outcome: “Standards for vocational teacher at Bachelor level in Lao PDR”

The most significant outcome of the study provides standards for vocational teachers (hereinafter referred to as ‘teachers’) in Lao PDR with the aim of promoting and maintaining high-quality teaching practice. The standards describe the competencies anticipated, including knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour, required for teachers to carry out their professional duties effectively.

The following standards have been developed on behalf of the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) and apply to all teachers working in public and private institutions of technical and vocational education, such as vocational schools, colleges, skills development centres etc.

Standards are structured into the following five competency areas:

A.  Competency Area of Acting in an exemplary manner

B.  Competency Area of Educating

C.  Competency Area of Teaching

D.  Competency Area of Assessment

E.  Competency Area of Self-Development and Innovation

Each competency area is subdivided into specific competencies (1. – 16.), illustrated by 80 indicators (1.1 – 16.7).

5 Implementation of standards for TVET teacher education

The development of the standards will only be useful if the standards are actually applied. Therefore it is absolutely essential to continue the work of developing standards and to ensure the implementation with emphasis. For implementation we propose three key elements:

• the appropriate dissemination of the standards
• the development of standard-based curricula and the accomplishment of these curricula at the university
• the establishment of a concept of mentoring at the vocational schools

The appropriate dissemination of the standards is the first crucial point. In a first step on 11^th February 2013 the MoES approved and declared the developed standards by decree as binding for the education of vocational teachers at bachelor level in Lao PDR (see MoES 2013). Furthermore, it is important, not only to announce the standards, but to inform a good number of the key actors in vocational education throughout the whole country. For the acceptance of the standards two groups – aside from the stakeholders already involved – are crucial: these are the headmasters of vocational schools, and the administrative staff in provincial educational departments in Lao PDR. In December this year therefore, two members of the research team will present the developed standards to the aforementioned key actors nationwide in three workshops (Luang Prabang, Vientiane, Pakse) and illustrate their significance for the education of vocational teachers.

The second and more institutional way to implement the standards addresses the system of higher education for vocational teachers. Currently the ministry in charge is working on a new law on vocational education. It is anticipated that this law emphasize the developed standards as a compulsory regulation for teacher education. Additionally it is necessary to develop a new standard-based curriculum. The curriculum must be considered as a national curriculum, mandatory for all institutions, educating vocational teachers at bachelor level. To apply the standard-based curriculum the academic institutions must be supported. The study proposes coaching for lecturers in vocational education at the National University of Laos as the correct and proper means for strengthening their work process knowledge and improving the quality of their lessons. Corresponding measures will be accomplished in winter 2013 and spring 2014.

The development of curricula described above, is essential to the improvement of the educative quality of vocational teachers but not sufficient as this study proposes to establish a mentoring concept, accomplishing the standards at the vocational schools. This mentoring concept is to focus on “fresh” graduates, who need qualified support in the transition process from university to professional life as well as “old” teachers, who need to be upgraded, in line with the standards. Experienced teachers act as mentors, but they must always remain open to new developments. Suitable candidates should be nominated by their own school.

6 Conclusion and recommendations

In terms of the educational level, the drafted standards apply to vocational teachers at a bachelor level and the indicators are formulated accordingly. If in the future an extension is possible and feasible, these standards could provide a good starting position encompassing, for instance, the master level as the next level in career opportunity.

It must be noted that the development of standards for vocational teachers is a difficult process for there are only a few comparable standards available that could possibly serve as a role model (see Wilbers 2010, 33). In this regard every state is challenged when attempting to develop specific standards for vocational teachers.

Concerning the proposals for implementation it must be noted that no recorded documentation or evaluations concerning the process of implementation of standards for vocational teachers exist. This appears to represent a quite conspicuous research gap.

It is necessary to review the developed standards periodically to prevent them becoming outdated. Therefore the study strongly recommends conducting an evaluation of the standards in about five years. Furthermore, it is recommended to go beyond the measures already described, by complementing this top-down process with a bottom-up process. The fact, that teachers at vocational schools are not sufficiently qualified, has been shown not only in various studies, but the schools themselves even see deficits – and can describe them in a great deal more detail and applied to their own needs. Therefore we recommend the carrying out of a qualitative survey of different vocational schools (in urban and in rural areas) concerning these questions. In addition to the focus on the standards, the results of such a study would provide valuable information for the improvement of curricula for the training and education of vocational teachers.

7 Acknowledgements

The fact that the standards described above have been developed and enacted successfully is a good example for a fruitful scientific cooperation between different regional teacher education institutions. It also shows how successful the Faculty of Engineering cooperates with the GIZ in Lao PDR within the framework of the TVET Teacher Education Programme (TTEP). Therefore the Faculty of Engineering explicitly thanks the researcher team for its excellent work, the cooperating institutions for their valuable input, GIZ-Laos and GIZ-China for providing financial support and the RCP-Secretariat (http://www.rcp-platform.com/ ) for facilitating the cooperation and enabling scientific consultancy. Furthermore the Faculty thanks Prof Uwe Elsholz for his tireless efforts and professional scientific supervision.

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Citation

Soysouvanh, B. et al. (2013). Developing standards of vocational teacher at bachelor level in Lao PDR. In: TVET@Asia, issue 2, 1-18. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue2/soysouvanh_etal_tvet2.pdf (retrieved 30.12.2013).