The image and attractiveness of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) constitutes an interesting topic that needs to be discussed. The issues related to this not only exist in developing countries but also in developed countries. In many countries to the present day TVET is rated second class education. Parents who can afford it rarely send their son and/or their daughter to a vocational school. They predominantly prefer general education.

This paper gives some insight into the issues of the image and attractiveness of TVET in Indonesia and in the efforts and measures to increase them. Data from China, India, South Korea and Russia show, that these countries have similar problems and apply similar strategies to overcome them. In most societies TVET graduates are not considered to be ready for work. This is due to many factors, among others: lack of facilities for practice, lack of linkages between schools and companies, a poor educational system, lack of teachers’ qualifications, etc.

Indonesia has made some breakthroughs in enhancing the image and attractiveness of TVET, among others, by increasing the share of vocational education and training with a target ratio between TVET and general high school education of 70% to 30% in 2025. Another step for enhancing the image and attractiveness of VET is establishing more higher education within vocational fields as has been done in China, or increasing the permeability from TVET to higher education as has been done in South Korea or India. Indonesia already has provisions for the latter and according to the latest information the Indonesian government will establish community colleges to provide a smooth path into higher vocational education. The recent launch of the Indonesian Qualification Framework suggests equivalence of academic, vocational/professional education and competence development by work experience and further training, which could make TVET more attractive.

In Indonesia, however, TVET has yet to develop in terms of quality and also has yet to develop a better image and higher attractiveness within society and the industrial communities for it to become an interesting option for young people and their parents when choosing educational pathways.

1 Introduction

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and the generation of skills is back on the international agenda, as numerous recent reports on the topic by different agencies show (for an overview see for example King 2013). King states, among others, that the assumption that increasing and better skills, combined with TVET, leads to economic development and more jobs, is questionable. It seems much more to be the case that economic development tends to depend on the availability of skilled human resources, but that the availability of such human resources does not automatically lead to economic development and improved well-being of the people.

Particularly when extending TVET in order to provide economies and societies with the required qualified human resources, it is imperative to consider the willingness of the people to engage in this medium level skills development exercise. We know that young people and their parents, whenever they have the possibility, choose higher education over TVET. This has to do with TVET’s predominant image as a second choice educational career and the frequent low-level attractiveness, which is not enhanced by the argument (often from international institutions), that TVET should be extended to provide economic development opportunities for the less-better-off and the marginalized.

It is therefore vital to have a closer look at what countries do to enhance the image and attractiveness of TVET to reach their defined TVET development goals. Indonesia for example has set a target for the period 2020 to 2025 of attaining 70% of technical and vocational education and training at upper secondary level as compared to 30% of general education (DIKNAS 2005:102). Such a goal, aside from providing the necessary infrastructure, requires convincing the population that TVET is viable choice.

In this paper information is given on the measures implemented in Indonesia to enhance the image and attractiveness of TVET, but also the measures taken by other countries in the region are highlighted for comparison. Some years ago a study was drawn up to have a closer look at the TVET policies of countries, considered to be economic competitors to the European Union (Ruth & Grollmann 2009). This study among others also addressed the image and attractiveness of TVET. Countries addressed were China which has been able to develop in goods manufacturing, India and Korea in software development and IT, and Russia in export of oil, gas, metals and services. All of them feature a rapid GDP growth. Indonesia was not included in the study.

Various efforts have been made by these countries, including Indonesia, to improve the image and attractiveness of TVET. TVET is still perceived as not as valuable as general education. China and South Korea, for example, with their strong Confucian cultural heritage think of blue-collar workers such as technicians and labourers as lower-class and somehow despised by the general population. Similar conditions exist in Indonesian society, where upper-middle-class children are almost certainly to be advised to choose general education in order to pursue their goals in higher education, i.e. at university. But also in most of the European Union (EU) member countries, parents prefer to send their sons and daughters to general education or university rather than to TVET.

Vocational schools are still considered second-class, not as attractive as general schools. The concept of attractiveness has broad dimensions such as perceptions of employers and labour market position, TVET graduates’ skills in relation to the business/industry needs, and VET graduates’ earning interest.

In the next section the author addresses the TVET systems in China, India, Russia and South Korea in terms of image and attractiveness, mainly based on the publication “Monitoring VET systems of Major EU Competitor Countries” written by Klaus Ruth and Philipp Grollmann (2009). The following sections are dedicated to the situation in Indonesia. Information on VET systems in the countries mentioned are used in considerations how to enhance the image and attractiveness of TVET primarily in Indonesia.

2 Image and attractiveness of TVET in other countries

The image and the attractiveness of TVET has been a problem for decades in most European countries (Ruth & Grollmann 2009, 44). Policy makers and practitioners are concerned about students and their parents choosing general education instead of vocational education and training. TVET is often seen as a second choice, and generally students who sign up to vocational schools are those with lower achievements. Countries like China, India, Russia, and Korea have been developing TVET in recent years to a different extent. In the following, selected aspects of the situation in these countries are discussed.

2.1 China

To improve the image of vocational education, China has developed initial vocational education and training (IVET) at tertiary level over the past decade. IVET developments at secondary and tertiary level in China, especially the opening of vocational universities since the mid-1990s have contributed to a better image of TVET pathways, mainly because they provide a degree.

Following the Chinese government’s policy of providing opportunities to students of secondary vocational schools to be able to pursue higher education (tertiary level) there has been an increasing number of applicants for vocational schools (see table 1).

Table 1: Development of students’ numbers in China’s vocational schools and universities 

Source: Ruth & Grollman (2009, 47) 

Table 1 shows a tremendous increase in applicants for higher vocational education. The number of applicants who went on to university or college has more than doubled within a period of 5 years. At the same time there has been an increasing number of applicants for vocational schools as a result of government policies that facilitate students’ move from general education schools to vocational schools and vice versa. China’s policies for vocational education apparently have considerably improved its image in the public perception. Similarly, in terms of gender differences the statistics show that women score better in exams than boys.

2.2 India

India faces the same situation as China and Korea regarding the image of vocational education and training. India also introduced policies, which allow graduates of vocational education to proceed to higher levels, but the number of graduates that take the opportunity is still limited. In India the term known as vocationalized curriculum describes the attempt to improve the image of vocational education, but the results are not yet visible. In addition India tries to enhance the image and attractiveness by improving effectiveness, efficiency and relevance of TVET. Moreover, there is vocational education cooperation with the industry, and vocational education tries to follow developments in the industry by sending teachers to practice and study new technologies.

The results of research conducted by a research group in India in the mid-1990s showed that vocational education quality in India is low (Ruth & Grollmann 2009). To cope with the problem of unemployment and the attractiveness of vocational education, measures being implemented to strengthen the position of vocational education develop vocational education curricula by including industry support. In addition vocational education programmes are run by the government, namely the advanced study programmes for students who have a good record and which lead to higher levels in the field of TVET. Such programmes have been implemented by the Indian government in fields like agriculture, trade, humanities etc. Research results conducted by The Operation Research Group (1996) showed that approximately 38% of vocational students wish to continue on to a higher level (Ruth & Grollmann 2009, 50).

In even more recent years, the efforts to develop VET have been increased (see the article from Agrawal in this journal issue).

2.3 Korea

In South Korea also the societal view of vocational education and training is not as good as that of general education. The policy pursued by the South Korean government allows students to switch from vocational education to general education. South Korea and China are opening a pathway to higher education with tertiary vocational education for four years and a Bachelor degree. These steps have the potential to improve the image and attractiveness of vocational education and training.

According to the study conducted by Ruth & Grollmann (2009) using statistical data from 2004, only 35% of students chose vocational schools over general schools. This ratio provides some hints on the general public’s perception of the VET system in Korea. A detailed analysis of the number of graduates of vocational high schools showed a decrease of approximately 30% in 2004.

The Korean government tried to improve the role of vocational education in accordance with the needs of the market regarding the development of technology. In relation to this, the National Commission for the Reform of Education and the Ministry of Education and Human Resources launched plans to reform the vocational education system in 2004. The plan proposed to increase the number of vocational schools significantly and also proposed fundamental steps in strengthening vocational education and training. These were: changes in the overall structure of the curriculum, slight changes in the number of students in a class, to improve the quality of practice in the field of training, to implement school-based economic activities, and to encourage students to take business activities more seriously. To improve the image of vocational education, South Korea has made various efforts including enhancing cooperation with industry and connecting with local companies by establishing Industrial Technology Education Zones.

Regarding the labour market it is important to note, that there has been no difference in the number of unemployed graduates of vocational education and general education. In fact one would expect that appropriate vocational education would be able to reduce unemployment in the respective group.

Other programmes conducted to enhance the image of vocational education include offering further courses after graduation. There have also been initiatives to encourage graduates of vocational colleges to proceed to higher education to obtain a bachelor degree. Furthermore a new policy in Korea, whereby workers improving their skills by means of training are to receive pay increases. Such steps can increase the image and attractiveness of TVET.

2.4 Russia

Since the dissolution of the USSR vocational education at the secondary level in Russia has suffered from a decrease in the number of applicants, and those applicants who apply, are usually from economically disadvantaged groups. Russian companies prefer to recruit graduates from higher VET instead of graduates from secondary vocational schools, which further affects the image and attractiveness of secondary vocational education. Russia is also implementing a VET education model for line flexibility, in that graduates from specific secondary vocational education programmes are accepted in higher education programmes in the same subject area.

Vocational education at the level of NPO (nachal’noe professional’noe obrazovanie – initial vocational education) or equivalent secondary vocational education has undergone a decrease while SPO (strednee professional’noe obrazovanie – medium level vocational education) gradually increased, meaning vocational education at SPO level appears more attractive. There is an overall perception in Russian society, that NPO has a very low reputation. Due to Russia’s policy in the past (since 1940) NPO level graduates have been employed at low wages (Ruth & Grollmann 2009). At that time, nearly 80% of workers were on a low income, and as many as 70% were living as farmers. Therefore, currently trends show that young Russians choose to continue to higher education and employers tend to recruit workers from college or university graduates.

To enhance the image and attractiveness of VET, the Russian government has undertaken measures such as: continually improving access and quality of vocational education; remaining consistent toward international standards in terms of vocational education content; enhancing the attractiveness for private VET and encouraging stakeholder involvement (namely: social institutions).

3 Image and attractiveness of TVET in Indonesia

It is undeniable that among the public the view persists, that vocational schools are schools for the marginalized sections of society and that they are intended for economically disadvantaged segments of society and for those only capable of second-class achievement. Generating confidence in and an understanding of TVET in the society requires time, and vocational education should be able to demonstrate consistent presence in the fields of technology and life skills.

When observing objectively and from the outside, an underlying reason, among others, that has led to its weak reputation, lies in the fact, that many vocational schools have deficiencies in organizing the students’ learning processes.

The major problems of Indonesian TVET in terms of image and attractiveness are also to be found in other Asian countries and feature the following:

a) TVET graduates still do not conform to the needs of the world of work in companies (Siregar 2011), consequently companies do not choose SMK graduates over graduates from general education schools (Worldbank 2010a, 23ff.).

b) There is no pattern of good cooperation between schools / universities with industry, (Parsa 2006).

c) There is no well-established model of quality apprenticeship with companies involved, and the structure and content of the curriculum does not match the requirements of the world of work (Rizkya 2011).

d) Indonesia has an extreme low level of formal employment (Worldbank 2010b, 57), which affects employees with a vocational education background much more than employees with higher education background.

Hence, the problem issues related to TVE’s image and attractiveness in Indonesia are basically the same as stated above. The other four countries are consistent in the handling vocational education, and their economic progress has proved significant in terms of the increase of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) due to their very fast growing industry sector. Growth in the industrial sector is supported by skilled workers from vocational education. The Indonesian Government should have a closer look at certain policies of the other countries, namely the introduction of higher vocational education in India and China and the pattern of cooperation between vocational schools and companies in South Korea.

4 Efforts to Enhance the Image and Attractiveness of TVET

From the 1980s the Indonesian government has continuously tried to improve the quality of vocational education to improve the image and attractiveness of vocational education. In the 1990s, Minister of Education and Culture at the time Professor Dr. Wardiman Djojonegoro implemented a model dual system education programme dubbed the Pendidikan System Ganda (PSG) or Dual System. The programme was not successful, due to the lack of response by companies and industries to the programme for a variety of reasons. These reasons included the Asian financial crisis at the end of the 1990s and the political upheaval in Indonesia. As a result the dual systems programme could not run as smoothly as intended (Sugihartono 2009). Some positive factors, however, still exist. Internships were introduced in a broad approach to develop school-industry cooperation, in parallel to pilot projects with selected schools and companies, where students spent considerable time in the workplace. Vocational schools students still have to attend an internship in a company for several weeks. Also the model of apprenticeships continues to exist, however, not as a part of the education system under the Ministry of Education for vocational school students, but as part of the national training system under the Ministry of Manpower for (first-time) workers, who just left school. This scheme, however, does not seem to be very interesting for employers because of its short duration of 12 months maximum.

Schools have made efforts to improve the skills of students with a variety of co-operations with industry and companies, encouraged by the ministry of Education. Students have to do an internship in a company, but due to various constraints the internship implementation does not run according to expectations. Companies seem reluctant to accept internship students since they feel that they disrupt production. But also the schools tend not to engage sufficiently in the supervision of students during internships, and companies are not provided with concepts on how to organise workplace learning, neither from political policy, nor from schools or the relevant universities. However, of course, there are a small number of companies and vocational schools that have a more positive mindset.

In parallel the concept of “factory schools” is promoted by the ministry’s department for vocational schools’ development in an effort to make TVET more practice oriented, and has been implemented in selected vocational schools. The results of students’ work in factory schools are attracting more and more attention and people are beginning to notice that TVET can adopt and implement high technology within fields like machinery, electrical engineering, informatics and so forth. For example SMK Mikael in Solo, Central Java, implemented this model and called it production-based education and training (Samodra 2012). Students in SMK Mikael enjoy an extensive amount of practical learning with the theory taught in school closely related to the practice in the industry (Harian Umum Pikiran Rakyat, 31 January 2012). This mirrors almost the above-mentioned dual system of vocational education and training. The type of vocational education offered at SMK Mikael is able to raise the image and attractiveness of TVET in society, proven by the increasing number of inscriptions of students and the fact that companies are offering jobs to students long before they have graduated. Other examples include the production of Jabiru aircraft in Bandung (Harian Umum Pikiran Rakyat, 31 January 2012), the activities of Bandung State Manufacture Polytechnic (Moerwismadhi 2012), and many others throughout Indonesia where the concept is implemented in accordance with the specific conditions and the industry that supports it.

The implementation of a system of national skills standards (Standard Kompetensi Kerja Nasional Indonesia – SKKNI) together with the respective certification schemes also intends to increase the attractiveness of vocational qualifications. SMK students are to be given the opportunity to have their competences certified upon graduation. The main target group to benefit from SKKNI and have their competences certified, however, was intended to be participants in further education and training measures. The development of SKKNI was started in 2004, as well as the development of the respective certification infrastructure. After almost 10 years of development, however, the system is still trying to make a breakthrough.

In Indonesia, graduates of upper secondary vocational schools have to sit national exams similar to their peers from general education upper secondary schools. They have the right to apply for admission to higher education at university or other higher education institutions. Vocational education, therefore, theoretically is not a dead end, but can be continued to a diploma certificate or even to a university degree. In reality, however, only a small share of SMK graduates makes its way to higher education. Entry examinations with high requirements or alternatively high costs for study programmes are most likely the main reasons.

Only recently, the Indonesian National Qualification Framework (Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia – KKNI) was established by means of a presidential decree (PP 8/2012). This national qualification framework features nine levels, and each of the levels above obligatory schooling can be reached either through a general/academic, a vocational/ professional education and training pathway, or by work experience, further training and development in the job. With this, these three paths are defined as equivalent, and can lead to comparable levels. The implementation, however, will take some time, especially because the structures for reaching the higher levels on the vocational/professional or on the work experience path are not yet in place. In certain, mostly state-regulated areas, the equivalence of the academic and the professional track has already been attained. Teachers up to upper secondary schools, for example, can enter service with either a Bachelor degree (Sarjana 1) or a Diploma 4 certificate. How the private economy, however, will judge proposed equivalence in the future remains to be observed.

In addition, the existence of an event of national scale, namely the student competence competition (LKS: lomba kompetensi siswa), held every year for SMK students throughout Indonesia as the national selection for the World Skills Competition, is one of the efforts made to improve the quality, image and attractiveness of vocational education. In 2012 LKS was held in Bandung. Almost all participants in LKS came from SMK from all corners of the archipelago of Indonesia. Similarly, visitors appeared extremely enthusiastic in observing, how students displayed their skills in various fields of occupational competence. It should be noted that this activity has all the appearances of very important event and is worth being supported by all parties, the public, governments and universities.

4.1 Issues and concerns

The main issue vocational education in Indonesia faces is not very different from other countries in Asia. It has to do with the job readiness of students. After completing education in TVET they are usually not ready or not fit for work in the manner companies’ require. Implementing well-organised, internships (or apprenticeship) of sufficient duration within vocational education could significantly contribute in reducing this deficiency.

In the German dual system of vocational education, vocational students are primarily employees in companies (with an apprenticeship contract) and their attendance as part-time students in a vocational school is considered as purely secondary to their employment in industry. The dual system is firmly established in the German education system, its roots date back to the Middle-Ages. An essential characteristic of the German dual system is the cooperation between largely private companies, on the one hand, and public vocational schools, on the other. This cooperation is regulated by law. (German Missions in the United States 2012). The ratio between the time spent in the company and the hours of theory in school is about 70% : 30%, and the learning procedures are in accordance with the respective guidelines. The attractiveness of this dual system in Germany is rooted in two aspects. Firstly, graduates of the dual system of vocational education continue in large numbers to work as a skilled worker in the same company, where they did their apprenticeship, or if they cannot, many find employment elsewhere easily. Secondly, the difference between the salary of a skilled worker and the average academically qualified employee is not too big, as long as top positions are not taken into account. A skilled worker in a big company (e.g. in the automotive, energy, or chemical sectors) can earn as much money as a high school teacher, university lecturer, or an academically educated employee in the public service.

The linkage between vocational education and industry in Indonesia is not satisfactory, as evidenced by the many complaints coming from the vocational education side, saying that it is difficult to cooperate with industry due to various constraints. Similar complaints about the weak responsiveness of vocational schools stem from the industry communities, admitting that the capacity of the industry to accept students for internships or apprenticeships is very limited and sometimes perceived as a disruption to the production process. Arguments stating why the industry remains reluctant to accept students for internship continue posit, that the materials used by students who are doing an internship are often damaged and cannot be used anymore, and raw material is expensive. In addition, internship students tend to affect production processes badly by causing production delays (Ratnata 1995).

Vocational education and training is still a hot discussion topic in the business sector, vocational education, and higher education. In his speech during the opening of Rembug Nasional SMK Membangun Bangsa[1] (National discussion on SMK building the Nation) the Director of Secondary Vocational Education of the Indonesian Government, Anang Tjahyono (2012), commented, that up to now, secondary vocational education has not been able to prepare graduates according to the needs of the world of work. The problems faced by vocational education today are considered to be the provision of adequate infrastructure. Facilities for practice and the quality of teachers and instructors remain matters of concern. The government has tried to improve the image and attractiveness of vocational education in society and in the world of business. Yet, to address this issue, support is needed from various parties: the government, the business community and the public. Anang Tjahyono also stated that, in the near future, the national education ministry will set up Community Colleges which will provide the opportunity to graduates from secondary vocational education to continue to D1 (Diploma 1) and D2 (Diploma 2).

5 Conclusion

Considering the above mentioned facts about vocational education in a developed country like Germany, in China, India, Russia and South Korea, and the present situation in Indonesia, the following statements can be made:

a) The image and attractiveness of secondary vocational education in Indonesian society still needs to be enhanced.

b) Providers of secondary vocational education have yet to develop the quality of TVET delivery, to make graduates’ competences accord with the needs of employment in industry.

c) Regarding efforts to improve the image and appeal of VET, the government, here represented by the Ministry of National Education and Culture, will develop a Community College Programme as a smoother path of continuation from vocational education to higher education.

From the brief explanation related to the image and attractiveness of VET the following conclusions can be drawn:

− Thus far the image and attractiveness of vocational education is still not good and people continue their thinking, that choosing a vocational school is caused by economic factors (they want to earn money quickly), in the hope that soon after graduating from vocational school they will be able to support their families financially. This condition also applies to higher vocational education (college) in D1 (Diploma 1), D2 (Diploma 2) and D3 (Diploma 3).

− Public perception persists in thinking that continuing to higher education will improve one’s status, while secondary vocational education is thought to produce simple labourers. This perception remains prevalent in China and Korea due to Confucian tradition, and in India due to the officially abolished, but very much still living caste-system, where the group of laborers and workers is considered inferior and those who are employed by the government as upper class. Generally, those who are able tend to choose public schools and higher education, i.e. the general education track.

− The Indonesian government is attempting to improve the quality, image and attractiveness of vocational education by opening the programmes D1, D2, D3, S (strata) 2 (T: Technique) and S3 (T)[2] as stated in the Regulation of the President of the Republic of Indonesia No. 8 Year 2012 about KKNI (Indonesian National Qualifications Framework). This means that vocational students who excel can continue to higher education level, very much like participants of general education.

− To this day in Indonesia, the workforce graduating from SMK is still regarded as not having sufficient skills in their field, and are not offered good salaries. Hopefully, in the future government policies will be implemented, leading to an appropriate remuneration of skilled workers with SMK graduation, so that younger generations will be encouraged to choose their educational pathway via SMK, and eventually the image and attractiveness of TVET will be enhanced.

References

DIKNAS (2007). Rencana Strategis Departemen Pendidikan Nasional 2005-2009 (Strategic Plan of the Ministry of National Education 2005-2009). Reproduction of the attachment to Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia Nomor 32 Tahun 2005 tentang Rencana Strategis Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Tahun 2005-2009 (regulation of the minister of education no. 32 year 2005 on the Strategic Plan of the Ministry of National Education 2005-2009). Published by Pusat Informasi dan Humas Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Jakarta.

German Missions in the United States (2012): Online: http://www.germany.info/Vertretung/usa/en/06__Foreign__Policy__State/02__Foreign__Policy/05__KeyPoints/Vocational__Training.html (retrieved 19.12.2012).

Harian Umum Pikiran Rakyat (News Paper of Societry thoughts) (2012). 31 Jan. 2012, p. 27, SMK, Primadona Baru di Dunia Pendidikan (SMK, the new prima donna in the world of education).

King, K. (2013). TVET and Skills Development: Some Reflections on Concepts and Discourse. Editorial, pp 5-9, Norrag News 48, April 2013. Online: www.norrag.org (retrieved 1.5.2013).

Moerwismadhi (2012). Teaching Factory, a Concept to Sutainable Vocational Higher Education Institute, Politeknik Manufactur Negeri Bandung.

Parsa, I M. (2006). Aktualisasi Pelaksanaan Pendidikan Sistem Ganda (PSG) pada Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan (SMK) Negeri Kota Kupang, Pendididkan dan Pengajaran IKIP Negeri Singaraja. (Updating the implementation of the dual education system in vocational schools (SMK) in Kupang City, National Education and Teaching /IKIP- Singaraja).

Ratnata, I W. (1995). Kemampuan Berpikir Logis Siswa STM dalam Pemahaman Konsep-konsep Listrik Magnet (Logical thinking ability of SMK students in understanding the electro-magnet concepts), Thesis, PPS (Program Pasca Sarjana) – IKIP (Institute of Teacher Training and Pedagogy) Bandung.

Rizkya, A. (2011). Perlunya Evaluasi dan Pengembangan Kurikulum SMK (Need for SMK Curriculum Evaluation and Development). Online:
http://blog.um.ac.id/rizkya/2011/12/20/perlunya-evaluasi-dan-pengembangan-kurikulum-smk/ (retrieved 19.12.2012).

PP 8/2012: Peraturan Presiden Republik Indonesia Nomor 8 Tahun 2012 tentang Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia (Presidential regulation of the Republic of Indonesia No. 8/2012 on the Indonesian national qualification framework).

Ruth, Klaus; Grollman, Philipp (2009): Monitoring VET Systems of Major EU Competitor Countries, ITB-Forschungsberichte 39/2009. Bremen.

Samodra, Y. V. (2012): Production Based Education and Training (PBET), Politeknik ATMI Surakarta.

Siregar, D. P. (2011): Pengangguran dan Kesiapan Kerja (Unemployment and Job Readiness. Online: http://edukasi.kompasiana.com/2011/05/10/pengangguran-dan-kesiapan-kerja/ (retrieved 19.12.2012).

Sugihartono (2009): Pendidikan Sistem Ganda (Dual education system). Online: http://sugihartono1.wordpress.com/2009/11/04/pendidikan-sistem-ganda (retrieved 14.12.2012).

Tjahyono, A. (2012): Keynote Speech during Rembug Nasional SMK Membangun Bangsa (National discussion on SMK building the Nation), Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, 18.6.2012.

World Bank (2010a): Education, Training and Labor Market Outcomes for Youth in Indonesia. Report No. 54170-ID. World Bank Office Jakarta.

World Bank (2010b): Indonesia Jobs Report. Towards Better Jobs and Security for All. World Bank Office Jakarta.

Citation

Ratnata, I W. (2013). Enhancing the image and attractiveness of TVET. In: TVET@Asia, issue 1, 1-13. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue1/ratnata_tvet1.pdf (retrieved 30.5.2013).

As part of the Regional Cooperation Platform for Vocational Teacher Education in Asia (RCP), four vocational teacher training institutions from Vietnam (Namdinh University of Technology Education – NUTE), Laos (Faculty of Engineering/ National University of Laos – FE/ NuoL), Indonesia (Faculty of Technology and Vocational Education/ Indonesia University of Education – FPTK/ UPI) and China (Institute of Vocational Teacher Education – IBB/ Tongji University) have been developing core curricula for Vocational Teacher Education (VTE) in Mechanical Engineering (ME) and Electrical Engineering (EE) at Bachelor Degree.

The authors compared and analysed the available curricula of the institutions for the purpose of discovering commonalities and differences. In seeking out differences, the authors applied the following principle: regarding various academic issues, it is was deemed necessary to analyse and compare to reach an agreement with the proviso that different cultural issues had to be respected. Going from that point the authors proposed this common structure for both curricula comprising: (1) Title of the curriculum; (2) Objectives; (3) Duration; (4) Enrollee; (5) Graduation condition; (6) Evaluation; (7) Contents; (8) Brief description of subjects and (9) How to use the core curriculum.

The core curriculum for VTE in ME consists of 134 credits including 28 credits in general knowledge, 52 credits in professional knowledge, 21 credits in pedagogical knowledge, 22 credits for internship – practice and 8 credits for the graduation paper.

The VTE core curriculum in EE consists of 133 credits made up of 30 credits in general knowledge, 55 credits in professional knowledge, 21 credits in pedagogical knowledge, 22 credits for internship – practice and 8 credits for the graduation paper.

The core curricula for vocational teacher education in Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering is to be implemented in the institutions taking part in the research. As they all share these core curricula, the institutions can exchange lecturers and students and in the near future have the qualification awarded by these institutions mutually recognized.

1 Introduction

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a political, economic, cultural and social association of the countries in Southeast Asia. ASEAN concentrates its emphasis on regional cooperation resting on the “three pillars” of security, sociocultural and economic integration towards the goal to create an ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) by 2015. Establishing the AEC ushers in many advantages for the countries in the region. AEC cultivates political trust and promotes friendly relations, making for an environment of peace and political stability. AEC creates a common market economically connected through the basis of consistent production, free trade for investment, capital transfer, labour all based on common standards and criteria to facilitate the the ASEAN member countries’. By 2015, ASEAN will have become a community. In place of ten heterogeneous labour markets there will be a large labour market in which nations recognize one another’s qualifications.

The Regional Cooperation Platform for Vocational Teacher Education and Training in Asia (RCP) was established with the support of GIZ (Germany). The platform was erected for vocational institutes in China and some ASEAN nations to discuss, share experiences and cooperate for the purpose of developing curricula and improve teaching and research skills.

Under these auspices Namdinh University of Technology Education in collaboration with National University of Laos, Indonesia University of Education and Vocational Training Institute-Tongji University, Shanghai conduct research for developing core curricula for vocational teacher education in Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering at bachelor level.

2 The training programmes of VTE in ME and EE at NUTE and partners

At NUTE, the curricula for VTE in ME and EE have three kinds of knowledge: general knowledge awarded 51 credits, pedagogical knowledge 21 credits and professional knowledge 78 credits. In ME, professional knowledge is classified into basic knowledge (26 credits), specialized knowledge (24 credits), internship (18 credits) and graduation paper (10 credits). In EE, professional knowledge is categorized into basic knowledge (30 credits), specialized knowledge (20 credits) and internship (18 credits). In general knowledge, aside from subjects such as Mathematics, Physics or English, other subjects are included based on the curriculum of the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) such as basic principles of Marxism-Leninism, Ho Chi Minh ideology or General laws. Professional knowledge provides students with the knowledge that need to apply in their major subject. Pedagogical knowledge focuses on subjects such as teaching skills and research methodology.

In NUoL, the Bachelor Degree Programme of Vocational Teacher Training is organised under the human resource development system and has an important role in the teaching-learning process at the vocational institute in meeting and corresponding to the needs of the social-economy of the country and society. The curricula of Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering are comprised of general knowledge (20 credits), pedagogical knowledge (32 credits), professional knowledge and graduation paper (04 credits). Professional knowledge of Mechanical Engineering features 93 credits, whereas the credit number of professional knowledge in Electrical Engineering is 94 credits. In Mechanical Engineering, professional knowledge includes basic knowledge (42 credits) and specialized knowledge (51 credits). The specialized knowledge consists of optional energy (21 credits), optional applied mechanics  (20 credits) and optional material and production (18 credits). In Electrical Engineering, professional knowledge includes basic knowledge (30 credits), specialized knowledge (59 credits) and elective subjects (5 credits).

The general objective of Electrical Engineering Education and Mechanical Engineering in UPI is to produce undergraduates with the skills to master technology within the field of electrical engineering/ mechanical engineering and capable of being professional teachers in these two fields. The S1 or bachelor programme in Electrical Engineering Education (PTE: Pendidikan Teknik Elektro) can be accomplished within eight semesters and comprises a total of 150 credits, including General Subjects (14 credits), Expertise Subjects (93 credits), Profession Basic Subjects (12 credits), Profession expertise Subjects (14 credits), Elective subjects (13 credits), and Profession Training Subjects (04 credits). The curriculum for VTE in ME includes the following subjects: General Subjects (14 credits), Skills (expertise) Subjects (92 credits), Elective subjects (16 credits), Profession Basic subjects (12 credits), Professions Skill Subjects (12 credits) and Profession Training Subjects (04 credits).

The training objective of IBB is to meet the modernization needs of the twenty-first century and develop all-round physical and moral energy, providing the basic knowledge and skills of mechanical engineering, vocational education teaching theory and practice, producing rounded, senior personnel. The curriculum for VTE in EE at IBB consists of general knowledge (91.5 credits), pedagogical knowledge (16 credits), professional knowledge (56 credits) of which basic knowledge accounts for 26 credits, specialized knowledge 30 credits, internship 21 credits and the graduation paper 17 credits. The curriculum for VTE in ME includes general knowledge (84.5 credits), pedagogical knowledge (18.5 credits) and professional knowledge (54 credits), among which basic knowledge accounts for 34 credits, specialized knowledge (20 credits), internship (24 credits) and graduation paper (17 credits).

Table 1:      The amount of knowledge for VTE in ME and EE in some institutions

3 Research methodology

In this research study, constructing a completely new core curriculum was not intended, but rather to develop a core curriculum basing on the partners’ available curricula. The major research methodology used in this study is the analysis and comparison of partners’ curricula to reveal commonalities and differences. The analysis and comparison follows the principle that commonalities enable partners to easily agree on the core curriculum. Regarding differences, if the difference is related to academic issues, partners analyse and compare for the purpose of reaching an agreement. Should the difference be culture related, it will remain unchanged. The core curriculum will be the combination of partners’ curricula but nonetheless follow the nature and the principles of curriculum development of each country.

Before comparing and analysing the major contents of the curricula, the authors compared and analysed to discover the common structure of the core curriculum. The authors began by comparing the partners’ curricula objectives. Analysis and comparison, revealed the partners’ curricula to be objective-oriented meaning the curricula content matched the objectives. The partners’ curricula objectives dealt with issues such as: health, professional ethics, the ability to satisfy the demand of industrialization and modernization, professional knowledge and teaching ability. The authors discussed and agreed that the core curriculum objectives should be confined to issues of professional and technical field i.e. upon graduation students must have professional knowledge, practical skills and teach ability at vocational institutions.

In terms of training duration, the authors compared the training duration of the partners’ curricula. In most of the curricula, featured a  4 year course, but Laos also included a year internship at vocational institution and in Vietnam the course a further six months was required for the acquisition of pedagogical knowledge. After the discussion, the partners agreed the training duration to be 4.5 years including professional knowledge, practical skills and pedagogical knowledge.

The enrollees in the partners’ curricula are graduates from high schools and the equivalent, which made it is easy for the partners to agree on this issue.

AS each country has different conditions and different assessment methods in terms of graduation conditions and assessment, ,the authors discussed and agreed: in order to graduate, students must accumulate all the required credits, the minimum GPA being 2 and must not have an “F”.

More importantly, the authors analysed and compared to reach agreement on the structure of the core curriculum. Via analysis and comparison, it became clear that the structure of Vietnam and China is quite similar regarding basic knowledge, professional knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge. In Laos and Indonesia, however, the structure of curricula is quite different. In Laos, general subjects, basic core subjects and core subjects feature in the curriculum. In Indonesia, the curriculum includes general subjects, skill subjects, elective subjects, professional skill subjects, professional basic subjects and professional training subjects. Although the subjects differ in nomenclature, the curricula are similar to one another. After the discussion, the authors agreed the structure of the core curriculum should feature general knowledge (including basic knowledge and core knowledge), professional knowledge (including basic knowledge and specialized knowledge), pedagogical knowledge, internship and graduation paper.

After the structure of the core curriculum was agreed, the authors went on to discuss the subjects and credit number of each subject in the core curriculum. The authors only focused on core knowledge, professional knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. The basic knowledge including the subjects related to social science and culture is to be decided upon and added to the core curriculum by each partner, to make the curricula appropriate to the situation in each country. The authors’ comparison resulted in the following: similar subjects of the partners’ curricula are to be added to the core curriculum, differing subjects are discussed more thoroughly to discover why such differences exist. If the subject content is the the same and only differing by name the authors discussed these to arrive at an agreement on how to name the subject and have it suitable to all partners. If the subject content were different, the authors tried to arrive at a single common subject for the partners. For example, Laos’ curriculum, features some mathematical subjects: Mathematics 1 (3 credits), Mathematics 2 (3 credits), Engineering Mathematics 1 (3 credits), Engineering Mathematics 2 (3 credits), Advanced statistics (3 credits) (the total number of credits is 11); the curriculum of Indonesia features Basic Mathematics (2 credits), Engineering Mathematics 1 (3 credits), Engineering Mathematics 2 (3 credits) and Probability and Statistics (3 credits) (the total number of credits is 11).  In the NUTE curriculum, the mathematics subjects are Advanced Mathematics 1 (2 credits), Advanced Mathematics 2 (2 credits), Advanced Mathematics 3 (2 credits), Special subject mathematics 1 (2 credits), Special subject mathematics 2 (2 credits), Special subject mathematics 3 (2 credits) (Special subject mathematics 2 and Special subject mathematics 3 are elective subjects) (the total number of credits is 10). The curriculum of IBB includes Advanced Mathematics (10 credits), Linear Algebra (3 credits) and Probability and Statistics (3 credits). It was immediately clear that there are some differences in the mathematical subjects of the partners’ curricula. After the analysis and comparison, the authors agreed on the following subjects: Mathematics 1 (2 credits), Mathematics 2 (2 credits), Mathematics 3 (2 credits), Engineering Mathematics (3TC) and Probability and Statistics (2 credits) (the total number of credits is 11). The above subjects and credit numbers, can ensure the core curriculum provides the required knowledge and is suitable to the available curricula of the partners.

When the names of subjects and their credit numbers were agreed on, the authors compared and analysed to reach agreement on the contents of subjects in the core curriculum. Should the subject content in partners’ curricula have been similar, it was easy to agree on the subject content of the core curriculum. Should the subject content have been different, the authors talked this through and worked out whether to add, reduce or modify the content to make the core curriculum content suitable to the partners’ available curricula . For example, each partner had different ways of describing the content of the mathematical subjects; however, the authors talked these through to arrive at the common content for all partners. The authors agreed on the content of the mathematical subjects as follows: Mathematics 1 (2 credits) includes the knowledge related to function; Mathematics 2 (2 credits) provides students with knowledge on matrix, linear equations and the concept of complex number; Mathematics 3 (2 credits) mentions multi-variable function, differential equation level 1 and level 2…; Engineering Mathematics (3 credits) includes knowledge on higher order differential equation, Laplace transformation and the introduction to partial differential equation; Probability and Statistics (2 credits) deals with random variables, probability distribution, mathematics expectation, hypothesis testing and statistical depiction. The same method was applied for the other such and talked out to reach an agreement on the subject content of the core curriculum.

The outcomes of the comparison and analysis are shown in the following table:

Table 2: The comparison and analysis outcomes

4 The core curricula for VTE in ME and EE

Basing on the comparison and analysis, the authors constructed the core curricula for VTE in ME and EE. The structure of each core curriculum consists of nine parts: (1) the title of the core curriculum, (2) objectives of study, (3) duration of study, (4) enrollee, (5) graduation condition, (6) assessment, (7) the structure of knowledge, (8) description of each subject and (9) the guide how to use the curriculum. The specific content of each part is as follows:

• Title of the core curriculum: Core curriculum for vocational teacher education in mechanical engineering/ electrical engineering
• Objectives of study: To train students with knowledge, skills and ability to teach in Mechanical Engineering/ Electrical Engineering in vocational institutes and industry. 
• Duration of study: 4.5 years
• Enrollee: Graduates from upper secondary schools or equivalent institutes
• Graduation condition:
  • Take all required subjects
  • GPA >= 2.00
  • No “F”
• Assessment: Basing on the national assessment system of each country.
• Structure of the knowledge: The structure of knowledge includes general knowledge, professional knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, internship – practice and graduation paper. The specific amount of each kind of knowledge is shown in the Table 3.

Table 3: The knowledge during the training course

In general knowledge, the authors only mention some core subjects such as English, Mathematics, Physics, Informatics or Psychology. Other basic subjects related to ideology, laws, culture and social studies will be open to each partner as these subjects are specific to the education system and cultural traditions in each country.

The professional knowledge provides the knowledge in the field of Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering. These are the students’ main focus throughout their career. This kind of knowledge is divided into basic knowledge and specialized knowledge. The basic knowledge of Mechanical Engineering comprises 29 credits in such subjects as Graphic and Technical Drawings, Heat Transfer, Mechanics, Engineering material, Metal processing, Tolerance and Measurement Technique… The specialized knowledge of Mechanical Engineering consists of 26 credits with some subjects such as Metal Cutting Principle, General Metal Cutting Machines, Manufacturing Processing and Fixture, Manufacturing Processing Project, CNC Technology, Unconventional Processing Methods, CNC Machine and Industrial Robotics… In the Electrical Engineering major, the basic knowledge of professional knowledge comprises 34 credits. It features such subjects as Electrical Circuit, Electronic, Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation, Digital Technique, Power Electronic, Electric Machine, Electric drives, Electronic-Electrical Materials, Automatic Controlling Systems… There are 18 credits of specialized knowledge including Electrical Installation Technique, Power System Analysis, Power System Protection, Power Station & Substation, Power Transmission, SCADA, Programming Control…

The pedagogical knowledge of the two core curricula provide students with the knowledge and skills relevant to their future teaching career. This kind of knowledge includes General Vocational Education, Psychology of Learning and Teaching, Research Methodology, Vocational Curriculum Development, Teaching Skill, Teaching Media, Practice in Vocational School, Teaching Measurement and Evaluation. Aside from the above compulsory subjects, students can choose to study one of these two subjects: Teaching Methodology or Professional Didactic. The credit number of pedagogical knowledge is 21 credits.

The internship – practice consists of 22 credits divided into 3 parts: technical internship in workshop/lab, technical internship in factories and a teaching internship in a vocational institution.

The credit number of the graduation paper is 8 credits.

All the subjects of professional knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, internship and graduation paper are built basing on the analysis, discussion, comparison, and agreement of the four partners. Table 3 illustrates the list of subjects for each kind of knowledge.

Table 4:  List of subjects for the core curricula for VTE in ME and EE

5 Conclusion and recommendations

Through comparing and analysing the training programmes for VTE in ME and EE in four institutions, the authors have constructed the core curricula for these two majors. It is expected that these core curricula will be adapted successfully in all partner universities for the purpose of developing their own new training programmes. The two core curricula are also referenced to other universities in ASEAN regions if they should wish to develop their training programmes. The authors hope that these curricula can form a recommendation to policy makers responsible for issuing policies relating to frame curricula.

Basing on these core curricula, institutions construct their own new training programmes according to the following recommendations:

• In terms of “objective of study”, institutions should add specific objectives which are suitable to the education and the cultural tradition of each country.
• In terms of “assessment” institutions specify the assessment according to the assessment system of each country.
• Institutions add elective subjects to the list of “General knowledge”, “Basic knowledge”, “Specialized knowledge”, “Pedagogical knowledge” and “Internship – Practice” and increase the number of required credits to be suitable to national education system of each country.
• Each institution can decide to replace the “Graduation paper” with some other subject to make the credit number of these subjects same as that of “Graduation paper”. In this situation, it is necessary for the institutions to list the subjects to replace the graduation paper.

Due to the scope of the study, the authors have only focused on the core curricula for VTE in ME and EE. There are still many other VTE majors that require the construction of core curricula among institutions in RCP for these institutions to have the opportunity to exchange training programmes, teachers and students.

References

Diamond, R. M. (1998). Designing and Assessing Courses and Curricula: A Practical Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Finch, C. R. & Crunkilton, J. R. (1979). Curriculum Development in Vocational and Technical Education. Allyn and Bacon, Inc, Boston-London-Sydney-Toronto.

Ministry of Education of Laos (2004). Decree No. 480/04.

Ministry of Education of Laos (2005). Decree No. 2116/05.

Ministry of Education of Laos (2005). Decree for Curricula of Vocational Teacher Education in Electrics and Mechanics No. 1792 / MoES.

Ministry of Education of Laos (2011). Decree No. 976/MOE/2011.

Ministry of Education of Laos (2012). Prime Minister’s Decrees: Decree No. 177 on Teacher.

Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam (2005). Law on Education.

Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam (2005). Decision No. 01/2005/QĐ-GDĐT.

Ministry of Labour-Invalids and Social Affairs (2010). Circular No. 30/2010/TT-BLDTBXH, dated September 29th, 2010, Regulations on Standards for Vocational Teachers and Lecturers.

Namdinh University of Technology Education (2011). Decision No. 696/QĐ-ĐHSPKTNĐ on Curricula for vocational teacher training in full time program basing on credit system.

Okebukola, P. (1997). Needs and Assessment and Curriculum Development in Higher Education. UNESCO Workshop on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Nairobi, Kenya.

Priowirjanto, G. H. (2001). Rencana Strategis Pendidikan Menengah Kejuruan 2001-2005 Jakarta: Dikmenjur. 

Regional Cooperation Platform for Vocational Teacher Education and Training/Asia (RCP) (2011). Institutional Development of Vocational Teacher Education in Lao PDR 2010-2020.

Shabani, J. et al.: Guide to Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Online: http://www.breda-guide.tripod.com  (retrieved 24.9.2012).

Smith, B. O., Stanley, W. O., Shores, J. H. (1957). Fundamentals of curriculum development. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.

Syaodih, S. N. (2000). Pengembangan Kurikulum Teori dan Praktek. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosda Karya.

Tongji University: Training plans and Syllabus for Vocational Teacher Education in Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering in.

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Indonesia University of Education) (2011). Kurikulum (Curriculum).

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Indonesia University of Education) (2011). Pedoman Akademik (Academic Guideline).

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Indonesia University of Education) (2012). Profile, History. Online: http://www.upi.edu/en/profile/history  (retrieved 2013).

Wentling, T. L. (1993). Planning for effective training: a guide to curriculum development. Food and and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Citation

Ha Xuan Hung, Ratnata, I W., Soysouvanh, B., & Wang, J. (2013). Cooperative, regional development and implementation of new Curricula in Vocational Teacher Education – experiences and reflections. In: TVET@Asia, issue 2, 1-14. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue2/ha-xuan-hung_etal_tvet2.pdf (retrieved 30.12.2013).