Anyone who teaches within a specific technical field must deal with specific knowledge of technology: its functions, its use and the vocational activities deriving from the respective area. However, this alone is not sufficient. Additionally, pedagogical-didactic considerations need to be conducted. Therefore, the question arises: who are the learners and what is the purpose of the educational program? Additionally, the following issues need to be addressed:

−      What is the need of the target groups with respect to the individual learners´ age and corresponding development phase (see Piaget)?

−      How far along is the learner in terms of his/her skills and competence development i.e. is the learner a novice or an expert (Dreyfus/Dreyfus 1980)?

−      Does the educational program address engineering programs in Higher Education or TVET programs that rather focus on work-tasks and work-processes?

Didactics of technology or technical vocational disciplines must recognize the differences in approaches with different prerequisites for the learner or in relation to the objectives, and turn it into a meaningful Concept.

The development of professional competence is shown within the performance and needs of informal or formal Vocational Education and Training. Informal learning is understood as experiential learning that takes place in an unsystematic and coincidental manner, e.g. at work places and in work processes. Here, the development of professional competence depends on specific working situations. Professionalization of TVET is a challenge in different respects.

Central elements of TVET systems, which need to be in line with the specific technical didactic, are the underlying curricula and the didactical approaches. 

But how are curricula supposed to be developed? Curricula are usually based either on simplified scientific knowledge or on coincidentally chosen practical examples. In many countries, the systematic exploration of work in specific fields is seldom conducted. How general and how specific must the curriculum be to meet the demand of the learners and to be an effective instrument? This is one of the main research questions in curriculum development form a standpoint of modern technical didactics. In order to provide a sound answer, it is necessary to analyse, to compare and to classify work tasks and work processes. Additionally, it is important to analyse what competences are relevant to perform the work task efficiently and in a high quality? 

The question: what must be learned regarding the processes and the knowledge derived from an job analysis is discussed in the paper of XUAN TIEN VO from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Vietnamwhile GOURHAN PIZARDA from Institute of Art, Design & Management,Pakistan discusses how a curriculum must be structured in order to develop the requested competences. 

A precondition for the design of a work-related curriculum is a foundational theoretical knowledge of didactical concepts and approaches. VLADIMIR BLINOV, EKATERINA ESENINA & IGOR SERGEEV from Russia Federal Institute for Development of Education discuss in this respect the concept of “Digital Didactics”. In their understanding, the system of technology and its more or less closed design prearrange the possibility of learning. One of their conclusions is: “Many teachers are already asking about the place of the teacher in the digital world. Perhaps, in this perfect and yet fantastic world they are not needed at all? You can safely answer that you cannot educate a person without the help of a person. The functions of the teacher and the tools of his work will change, but the goal is the same – give new generations all the best we have …”

However, referring to Noam Chomsky and in contrast to other contexts and concepts, “competence” meaning (in scientific TVET discourses) the ability to act self-reliantly in complex work situations as well as act as a member of society and family. Although the technical system is given, there is a need to work with it. In this respect, competence is shown by the performance of the actor. “Competence” means not a pure skill but a disposition to solve complex problems in situations (Rosenstiel & Erpenbeck 2007). The term “competence” can be differentiated from “qualification”, which – among others – refers to certified competences.

In Germany, there are different dimensions of competences defined in vocational curricula, which are distinguished into three field-related dimensions: professional, social and self-competences. Each dimension has its own methodical instruments (KMK 2011, pp. 14). Didactics of Technical Vocational Education and Training should combine formal and informal learning to enhance the quality of Technical Vocational Education and Training systematically e.g. by experiential learning. Collaborative problem solving could be one concept to develop corresponding competences. DANG THI DIEU HIEN & DUONG THI KIM OANH from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education Vietnam develop in their paper a concept of how experiential learning in an institutional and formal context can be achieved through the didactical approach of collaborative problem solving.

In order to initiate and enhance individual competence development, most didactical approaches focus on action-orientation as it is applied in approaches, which are widely known as Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Project-Based Learning (PjBL). The concepts and their valuable contribution to the variety of technical didactics are discussed in the paper of MARGARITA PAVLOVA & CHRISTY SHIMIN CHEN from UNESCO-UNEVOC Centre, at the Hong KongUniversity of Education and in the paper presented by LIU HUAN from China/ Technische Universität Dresden, Germany. Both papers deliver outstanding examples for the fact that Technical Didactic is challenged to choose the best possible method to allow the learner to develop professional competences in a suitable learning environment. There are many questions, which research could clarify through theoretical concepts and by conducting empirical studies: Which methods are therefore most appropriate? MARGARITA PAVLOVA & CHRISTY SHIMIN CHEN address this question by discussing different models of integration of PBL and PjBl in the field of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and introducing the Model of “Problem-Oriented and Project-Organized Learning” (POPOL).

Technical didactics, to be understood in a more comprehensive manner, is a central element of vocational teacher education (VTE) and in consequence for the development of TVET systems. It lays the basis for reflection and ongoing innovation or adaptation of educational objectives, contents, methods, design of learning environments, media, strategies of assessment and evaluation in the field of technical education in general and in TVET systems in particular. 

Thank you to the contributors. We wish you all great reading pleasure!

Martin Hartmann, Mustapha Ramlee, Diep Phuong Chi, Bruri Triyono

CITATION

Dreyfus, H L.; Dreyfus, S. (1980): A five-stage model of mental activities involved in directed skill acquisition. Unpublished report supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFSC), USAF, University of California at Berkley, February 1980.

Erpenbeck, J. & Rosenstiel, Lutz von (Ed.) (2007): Handbuch der Kompetenzmessung. Erkennen, verstehen und bewerten von Kompetenzen in der betrieblichen, pädagogischen und psychologischen Praxis, Stuttgart: Schäfer Poeschel. 

KMK (Secretary of the conference of ministries of culture, Ed.) (2011): Handreichung für die Erarbeitung von Rahmenlehrplänen der Kultusministerkonferenz für den berufsbezogenen Unterricht in der Berufsschule und ihre Abstimmung mit Ausbildungsordnungen des Bundes für anerkannte Ausbildungsberufe, actualized 2017 https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2011/2011_09_23_GEP-Handreichung.pdf, (retrieved 08.01.2019). 

In the context of achieving China’s Agenda 21 for Sustainable Development (SD), it is crucial for TVET to explore its own reforms to meet the increasing demand for green skills, and serve and promote sustainable development of the social economy. Zhang and Zhang (2012) point out that the significant tasks for TVET institutes, in addition to empowering students with theoretical knowledge and professional skills, more importantly, are developing students’ competencies for SD. The aim of this article is to try to synthesize the existing literature and studies, summarize relevant information and available evidence to find factors that affect vocational students’ competencies for SD in terms of teaching and learning process of TVET. The main findings identified the following factors that affect the learners’ competencies to deal with sustainability: teaching concept deviating from talents and training goals for SD; current instructional methods and content do not promote student’s competency for SD; the absence of comprehensive assessment. In response to these barriers and the demand of equipping students with key competencies for sustainability, practical advice and recommendations are offered for teachers to enhance their relevant competencies (instructional competency, hands-on competency, competency to plan, competency to act in concrete domains, competency to analyse and reflect the teaching and learning process, etc.).

Keywords: Vocational Education Teaching and learning; Competencies for SD; Vocational Training and Sustainable Development

1          Introduction

Compared with academic education, TVET was relegated to a second-class educational system in the past (Han 2009). The TVET is now considered as the key to stimulating economic prosperity as it can equip students with vocational skills which are vital for improving the quality of employment and promoting poverty alleviation (Bagale 2015).

On 19 February 2019, Chinese Ministry of Education held a conference on the reform of vocational education and introduced that in 2018, there were eleven thousand and seven hundred vocational colleges with a total of 26.855 million students in China, and every year, vocational education provides large numbers of skilled workers (such as carpenters, mechanics, technicians, masons, electricians) to society. TVET plays a vital part in cultivating technical personnel in a great variety of industries, as well as providing essential human resources support for the country’s economic growth and social development (Long 2014).

In the new era, TVET should correctly handle the relationship between its own value orientation and the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the whole society. It is significant for TVET to explore its own reforms in order to maximize coordination with the rapid development of the green economy in a stable, sustained and long-term manner. In practice, SD requires people to take into account the responsibility of protecting the ecological and social environment when pursuing economic benefits.

In 1992, Agenda 21 was adopted at United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) and the SD strategy for human society was officially mentioned and proposed for the first time (UN 1992a). Since then, SD has begun to become the core concept of economic and social development and aroused extensive worldwide attention.

Aligned with the Agenda 21 of Rio de Janeiro, China’s Agenda 21, as an action plan, was reviewed and approved at the 16th executive meeting of the State Council On March 25, 1994. The main content of this Agenda 21 involves: the overall strategy and policy of economic, social, and environmental sustainability, and specifically point out that “education is the key to promote SD and increasing individuals’ competencies to solve environmental and development problems.”

On June 1st, 2012, the National Report on SD of the People’s Republic of China was released and aimed to take the scientific development as the main theme to achieve sustainable economic as well as social harmony and progress in China. Individuals, as practitioners and subjects of developmental purpose, the improvement of their overall quality is obviously the most critical element for implementing SD strategies.

The purpose of TVET is to equip the manpower with knowledge and skills required for their future jobs embedded in the socio-economic context and guarantee them successfully transition from education to working life. However, after students graduate from TVET, it is uncertain as to whether they possess competencies for SD and can truly develop their own potential and work creatively in their professional positions (Zhu & Deng 2013). These issues force the cultivation of vocational students’ competencies for sustainability becoming an urgent problem that need to be solved (Jin, 2014; Yi, He, Luo, & Wang 2018; Zhu & Deng 2013). Thus, in the context of China’s Agenda 21 for SD, TVET institutes need to rethink how to develop students’ competencies recognized as crucial for SD.

Teachers play irreplaceable and unique roles in aspects of guiding students’ development and orientation as well as equipping them with a broad range of knowledge, attitudes, and vocational skills in adherence to SD. They are the crucial driving forces in creating empowered and globally-responsible individuals or citizens who can become active change agents for SD and thereby consciously follow the development rules between humans and nature. However, research in China reveals that the teaching and learning process in TVET does not bring the expected teaching effects on furnishing students with competencies for SD maybe because TVET teachers are not well informed about SD, and cannot adequately supervise students in this process. To identify what teachers’ competencies that are required to address the issue of the attainment of competencies for SD through TVET, this paper examines current situation in TVET institutions. This provides an opportunity to evaluate what are the barriers concerning the cultivation of students’ competencies to deal with SD in teaching and learning exit. This analysis provides the evidence of what change should be achieved in terms of teaching and learning, and thus, enable this paper to suggests key competencies TVET teachers required to support teaching and learning for SD.

2          Essential characteristics of Education for sustainable development (ESD)

“The 2030 Agenda”, adopted by the United Nations in 2015, launched a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to stimulate action over the next 15 years for people, planet and prosperity. Education is the most critical element for the realization of the 2030 Agenda (UN, 2015).

ESD has certain key features as outlined by Pavlova (2013), Jiang (2009), and the UNESCO (1983, 2009, 1992, 2015, 2017):

• is based on underpinning principles and values;
• Generally, cope with the coordinated, harmonious and consistent development among society, economy and environment;
• emphasizes life‐long learning;
• highlights the core competencies required for SD (e.g. foresighted thinking, critical and systematic thinking skills);
• is multidisciplinary and largely depends on all disciplines to contribute to ESD;
• is largely led by meeting the increasing demand for green skills;
• involves formal and informal education;
• is locally relevant (i.e. if local environmental policies are compatible with (green) economic growth);
• create globally-responsible citizens, maintaining a sustainable standard of living, and enhance societal well-being.

3          What are competencies for SD?

Competencies for SD refers to relevant competences for dealing with a sustainability problem which our societies are now facing (i.e. poverty reduction, globalization, social cohesion) (Lambrechts, Mulà, Ceulemans, Molderez, & Gaeremynck 2013). This suggests that individual possessing competencies for sustainability are able to acquire, apply and innovate knowledge to achieve the goal of continuous and harmonious development of human and nature, as well as individuals and society.

de Haan (2006) developed a framework of “Gestaltungskompetenz” (shaping competence) which comprises a set of key competencies toward SD (22-25), as summarized by Adomssent and Thomas (2013, 4-6) :

• competency in foresighted thinking;
• competency in interdisciplinary work;
• Competence to create knowledge;
• participatory skills;
• competency in planning and implementation;
• capacity for empathy, compassion and solidarity;
• competency in self-motivation and in motivating others; and
• competency in distanced reflection on individual and cultural models.

Sleurs (2008) discusses competencies for SD which encompasses the following four competencies: System thinking; Values and ethics; Emotions; Action.According to Lambrechts et al. (2013), although different authors report on competencies for SD using different settings and perspectives, these competencies have similar characteristics: responsibility, emotional intelligence, system orientation, future orientation, personal involvement, ability to take action, etc.

Among these competencies, Adomssent and Thomas (2013) report that the most important ones are “Systemic thinking, anticipatory thinking and critical thinking” (4). German scholar Klaus Hahne (2008) believes that systems thinking skills, based on the concept of SD, determine the real actions that people take. System thinking skills can help students make choices in contradictory situations or conflicts of the economy, society, and ecology; as well as balance in complex relationships and diverse social groups to determine the correct direction of development (Xu 2013).

In the doing of the process for SD, individuls must have competencies in respect to very concrete fields, including strong theoretical foundation (subject-matter knowledge), high vocational skills with strong hands-on ablility, dealing with and developing the process based on experience, practice and reflections.

4          Why are TVE teachers particularly crucial for fostering students’ competencies for SD?

Most of the students trained in TVET are first-line high-quality skilled talents in various jobs. TVET teaching staff can best support skills development of students as they are familiar with the labor market demand and industry needs. Vocational skills can help students produce quality and competitive goods with higher efficiency and it is therefore indispensable for poverty reduction and SD.

In addition, TVET teachers are not only significant in technology diffusion and dissemination through skills and knowledge transfer, they can also prepare and encourage various types of skilled labor to contemplate, deliberate and reflect SDGs related content for appropriate application in their future professional practice.

Besides, teachers can review the TVET curriculum often by incorporating SD concepts and principle as well as giving due consideration to changes in the new technology. They can also be active change agents and role models for the SD agenda, disseminate SDGs related principles to the graduates who would, in turn, practice these principles in their future career (Chinedu, Wan-Mohamed, & Ajah, 2018).

Thus, TVET teachers become extremely important to achieve the SDG by imparting their SDG-related ideas, skills, and attitudes to students in order to meet societal market needs, thereby impacting on economic development and the broader contribution to societal progress and wellbeing.

5          Methodology

Taking other reviews of research literature (Ismail, Nopiah, & Rasul 2017; Liu 2019) as a guide, determining the inclusion criteria is critical for conducting this synthesis review. First of all, articles published between 2009 and 2019 were searched in three predominant database systems of China: CNKI, VIP and WANFANG DATA. Furthermore, the following terms or keywords were used to conduct the search: ‘TVET’, ‘students’, ‘competence’, ‘competency’ ‘Sustainability’ ‘Sustainable development’ ‘Teaching and Learning’, ‘Barriers’ or ‘Issues’. Titles, abstracts, background and conclusion were retrieved, and articles were screened to be included if they were related to the proposed issues regarding the students’ competencies for sustainability in teaching and learning in Chinese TVET institutions.

A total of 57 publications, which met the aforementioned criteria, were yielded in our preliminary list through this electronic search. Besides, this review only focuses on teaching and learning fields for secondary and higher vocational colleges because teaching is the main way of training talents, which is directly related to the cultivation of students’ competencies for SD (Wang, Zhang, Zhao, & Fang 2018).

Thus, the title, abstracts and scope of the articles, which are relevant to the teaching and learning in TVET were examined. Two individuals separately searched, check all the required information, and through this second check, we finally gathered 33 papers in this review, while the rest of the publications were discarded.

6          Result and Discussion

The main findings obtained which were observed to affect the vocational students’ competencies for SD are as follows: teaching concept deviating from talents training goals for SD; current instructional methods and content do not promote student’s competency for SD; the absence of comprehensive assessment.

6.1         Teaching concept deviating from talents training goals for SD

In the process of talent training in China, teachers of higher vocational colleges mainly pay attention to a specific technology or skill education, while ignoring development of students’ competencies for sustainability (Chu & Li 2014; Ding 2015; Jin 2014; Li 2012; Lin 2015; Liu 2017; Si 2016; Wang, Zhang, Zhao, & Fang 2018; Zhang 2014; Zhang & Li 2013; Zhou 2018). For example, Cui (2018) and Ding (2015) reported that most vocational colleges take the initiative to use the employment rate as a guiding indicator, and therefore increasing numbers of TVET teachers are taking “empowering students with the Job Skills” as the main goal in the talent training program, while other aspects such as theory-study, comprehensive development of students become insignificance or even neglected. The direct impact of this is that some courses that improve the overall quality of students are gradually compressed or even reduced (Cui 2018; Long 2014), and numerous VET colleges do not offer courses related to cultivation of students’ competencies or skills necessary to deal with SD (Cui 2018).

This one-sided view of the “employment-oriented” concept (too much emphasis on job adaptability) (Jin 2014; Zhou 2018), paying special attention to various “skill competitions” (Wang, et al., 2018), as well as order-orientated talent-training model (Cui 2018; Li 2012; Qi & Zhong 2015) are the embodiment of the lack of competences of SD of higher vocational students.

Practice has proved that outstanding talents trained in higher vocational education, not only possess high skill with strong hands-on ability, but also shows their professional ethics, strong theoretical foundation, as well as their achievements in the interdisciplinary and cross–industry context ( Zhou 2018).

6.2         Current instructional methods and content do not promote student’s competency for SD

Whether the goal of student’s competency for SD can be achieved is closely related to the professional teaching content and instructional design (Yang 2015). However, the cultivation of students’ competencies to deal with sustainability has not penetrated into the teaching content of TVET (Luo 2017).

As mentioned above, teachers are more concerned with the basic requirements of students’ employment (Wang, et al. 2018) and attach too much importance and value to the improvement of students’ vocational skills (Cui 2018), while ignoring the cultivation of students’ competences for SD and ability needed for long-term development in their TVET Teaching and Curriculum (Li 2012; Luo 2017, Wang, et al. 2018).

Literature shows that traditional, teacher-centred pedagogical approaches are still dominant in the classroom instruction in quite a few of TVET institutes and hinders the development of students’ practical ability (Du & Mao 2017; Wang & Chen 2012; Xiong 2013; Yan 2016). The foundation of higher vocational students is weak and they lack motivation to learn (Ding 2015; Zhang, 2014) and those students are characterized by poor learning habits, low interest in learning, poor self-management and self-learning ability (Li 2015; Lin 2018; Xiong 2015; Yan 2016; Zhang 2014; Zhang 2014; Zhang & Li 2013). This Traditional didactic instruction cannot stimulate students’ passion to show a more initiative, active, engaging style of learning. Thus, students passively receive lectures’ course content and PowerPoint presentations, and the degree of student participation in the learning process is low (Lu 2018). Neglecting “student-centred” teaching means and methods limit students’ ability to “discover, propose, and solve” problems independently (Luo 2017). This is not in line with the objective requirements of vocational education students’ competencies for SD in the new era.

6.3         The absence of comprehensive assessment

When teachers evaluate the true level of a learner in daily teaching activities or in the workplace where students are trained, they lay emphasis on outcome assessment. Evaluation and judgment are too often only focusing on the knowledge component (Zhou 2018). The lack of “formative assessment” as well as being indifferent to the development of students’ non-intellectual factors (Zhou 2018) will inevitably lead to the evaluation results lacking rationality and therefore problematic for evaluating students’ competences for SD (Du & Mao 2017). Chu and Li (2014) report that at present, the evaluation system of higher vocational students’ competencies for SD is imperfect (also non-standard) and almost no factors closely related to competencies for SD included in the scope of the evaluation.

Through analysis and feedback, teachers should make objective case evaluations on students’ performance, identify progress aspects, provide special training and guidance on inadequacies, and promote the improvement of students’ professional ability and competences for SD through repeated evaluation and training (Zhou 2018).

7          Recommendations

Competencies is hardly comparable with knowledge acquisition, and cannot be taught (Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, & Stoltenberg, 2007) or communicated (Adomssent & Thomas, 2013). But competencies are viewed as learnable through practical experience (Hartmann, 2017). This leads to the question how to acquire SD competencies. In response to the above problems, the following measures are proposed for TVET  teachers to enhance students’ competency acquisition towards SD.

7.1         The method of reflection levels

“The theory and method of reflection levels” developed by Hartmann (2005, 2017) is a beneficial tool for teachers to analyse, plan, design and develop complex learning situations (i.e. How to produce a product according to the demands of customers or how to design a sophisticated workpiece of specific material) which can provide plentiful opportunities for the development of competencies of their students (Hartmann 2017). Method of reflection level is associated with the analysis of the actual working processes, and engaging in the work activities and each step of reflection helps vocational students to gain and accumulate practice experience. Thus, this model is especially conducive to fostering students’ critical thinking skills.

Hartmann (2017) implies that competencies are growing in the learning process (e.g. participation in new tasks at work) rather than passively receiving it (See Figure 1). Teaching on the bases of the theory of reflection levels is centered on a (more or less) complex situation and involves a carefully planned learning process, even provide detailed guidance with specific explanations and sufficient instructions to learners. The objective of this theory is to analyze complex situations, to structure them in respect to their conditions a.s.o. Therefore it as a methodological component, that could be focused on teaching processes, so that it can be used to maximize the likelihood that whenever an individual is asked to perform assigned tasks or learn something new, the teacher already systematize and construct suitable learning situations to make the learner’s challenges more visible and learning more efficient. The design of learning situations needs to be well thought out, build upon learners’ prior knowledge as well as their existing competency levels, and then move to cultivate learners’ higher-level competencies.

 “The method of reflection levels”, enabling a learner to be able to deal with complex, unfamiliar situations, be able to act upon reflection, respond to emergencies or diagnose the problems, and make the corresponding decisions. In the case of cooperative work process, it is also concerned that participants are able to carefully negotiate the results of the work, take on responsibility, offer their individual skills, take into account ethical standards when acting, as well as to be able to shift and adjust their behavior accordingly in order to meet customers’ needs, expectations or even changing demands on the products, despite any personal conflict such as different perceptions, ideas, desires between individuals.

This, however, requires that participants must possess the capacity to distance themselves from the work done, be able to reflect on the process from the outside, provide constructive feedback and understand/know what is necessary in the next moment, such as method, procedure, and communication elements involved (Hartmann 2005; 2017).

This competence-orientated method can be combined to embed SD in the curriculum, and helps to identify learning opportunities and design learning situations focusing on attaining relevant key competencies to deal with SD.

Figure 1: “The method of reflection levels” (Hartmann 2017)

Based on this reflection level model, it will be easier for TVET teachers to organize effective teaching and learning processes, which involves building certain sustainability-related competencies of students. The improvement of cultivating students’ competencies for SD is an accumulation process and the application of reflection level model can be mastered through a short period of teacher training and practice.

7.2         General didactic considerations

Lambrechts et al. (2013) cite study of Sluijsmans (2008), and enumerate certain types of methods, techniques and strategies for teachers to foster students’ necessary competencies to deal with sustainability:

• interactive methods: group discussion, brainstorming, role play, etc.;
• action-oriented didactic: project-based learning (i.e., collaborative real-world projects) (Wang 2017; Yi, He, Luo, & Wang 2018; Zhang 2014), the facilitation of a workshop, learning through internships, solving real local environmental problems, etc.;
• research methods: bibliographic research, case studies, and problem analysis, etc.

These methods and strategies can also be combined or linked to better help teachers embed SD in the curriculum, reducing the gap between knowledge and practice. (Lambrechts et al. 2013).

In addition to, Ng, Lam, Ng, and Lai (2017) present that “blended learning” also subtly improve students’ self-management of their studies (enhancing their learning motivation and self-regulation learning ability), form a “community of practice”, and nurture their participatory skills because such learning provide opportunities for students to ‘prepare theories related contents outside class time by watching online videos or pre-assigned instructional materials and engage in group discussion and tutorial in class’(268).

7.2.1        Teaching assessment

Teachers should adopt diversified assessment methods, respecting learners’ uniqueness and differences in individual development and providing opportunities for students to evaluate their own learning and review, assess or grade the work of a peer. This self-assessment, self-perception and peer evaluation can capture learners’ insights on finding inadequacy to practice their critical-thinking, which help students to monitor their own learning processes.

Lambrechts et al. (2003) report that competencies cannot be evaluated by non-current and isolated learning outcome, and suggested the following three steps of the evaluation in guiding learners’ learning process.

• feed-up: make assessment criteria explicit and transparent for learners, give examples
• feed-back: provide sufficient feedback to learners
• feed-forward: offer students guiding information on how to go further in the learning competences process.

7.2.2        Elaborately planned project

It has been proved that the project-based teaching is effective in TVET teaching (Pavlova & Chen 2019；Sun & Liu 2012; Zhou 2018). Bell (2010), Baysura, Altun, and Yucel-Toy (2015) as well as Frank, M. and Kordova, S. (2009) state that 21st-century competencies such as critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and system thinking can be acquired via project-based learning. Carefully planning projects concerning training students’ competencies for SD is the key to the successful implementation of the project (Zhou 2018). The project should reflect on a given number of competencies for SD. At the project design phase, it is significant for TVET teachers to think about the following questions:

What do these competencies for SD mean for the students?

Are these competencies for SD likely to be achieved by the students?

How to guide students to achieve these competencies for SD in their teaching methods?

What learning activities will students engage with in order to develop these competencies for SD?

How to assess whether students have achieved these competencies?

If the project that includes dealing with community issues or local environmental problems and cooperation with a partner (for example, enterprise) in practice, learners can learn real-world (authentic) challenges, tasks, and benefit from the collaborative partners’ experiences and expertise.

Project design should potentially have multiple levels. ‘A project does not need to be highly complicated and complex but the simple and quick project may not be enough to provide students with a constructive investigation’ (Liu 2019, 7), which drives learners’ in-depth inquiry, involves their new understandings, and eventually foster their competencies.

7.2.3        Establish the concept of lifelong learning for students.

Strengthening the attitude of lifelong learning in students (Gao 2014; Si 2016; Zhao, Liu, & Zhao 2015). This type of learning has become a need in addressing social and environmental issues for human development in today’s knowledge-based, high-tech society and putting it into practice is necessary to help students keep up with the pace of the times (Zhang & Zhang 2012). Lifelong learning is described as crucial for the achievement of SDGs, such as responsible consumption and production; decent work and economic growth; gender equality; health and well-being; and climate change mitigation (English & Carlsen 2019).

7.3         Strengthen cooperation with Enterprises

School administrators of TVET should strengthen cooperation with enterprises (Li 2015; Qi & Zhong 2015; Wang & Chen 2012; Xiong 2013; Yi, He, Luo, & Wang 2018; Zhu & Deng 2013; Zhao 2015; Liu & Zhao 2015) and encourage in-service teachers’ rational flow between enterprises and colleges on a regular basis to keep subject knowledge up to date, gain enterprise-based expertise, cultivate hands-on ability, and understand talents quality requirements of enterprises (Chen 2016). Then, according to local green economic structure and industrial green development, as well as talents demand of enterprises, TVET teachers need to re-examine and reorient subject system and teaching content towards sustainability, develop knowledge, skills, perspectives, and values relevant to SD (Lambrechts et al. 2013; Lin 2015), and develop a systematic, integrated curriculum to serve local businesses and green economies (Xiong 2013; Shi & Meng 2016).

Overall, in order to empower students with specific knowledge, skills, and aforementioned competencies to solve problems related to SD (i.e. long-run economic growth, taking into account the environmental resource scarcity, damage and destruction), teachers must have instructional competency (Hartmann 2005), possess subject-matter knowledge, use appropriate  teaching skills, participate in  designing appropriate learning  situation and create an atmosphere which is conducive to  student-centered learning. For TVET teachers, realistic, hands-on experience and competency are also required to guide vocational students’ practical training process. Besides, to face the challenges in the perform the task of teaching, TVET teachers must have competency to acquire new knowledge and skills, competency to plan, competency to implement plans and act in a forward-looking manner, competency to analyse, reflect and develop the teaching and learning process (de Haan 2010; Hartmann 2005; Rauch & Steiner 2013).

8          Conclusion

TVET is a primary supplier of the labor force of nations (Chinedu, Wan-Mohamed, & Ajah, 2018) and TVET teachers are key persons in developing those numerous workers’ knowledge, skills, values and capabilities required for SD. TVET teachers must have competencies such as instructional competency, hands-on competency, competency to plan, competency to act in concrete domains, competency to analyze and reflect the teaching and learning process, etc., which will, in turn, help students to acquire competencies towards SD. It is difficult to meet the SDGs without recognizing the roles, functions and contributions of teachers in the process of empowering students with competencies for SD, especially their modern teaching methods.

This paper focuses on dealing with students’ competences for SD on the part of teachers. Actually, how to successfully and effectively equip student with competencies to deal with sustainability not only depends on the teachers’ teaching concept relevant to SD, didactical approaches, and assessment methods, but could also depend on a number of other factors. These are including the students in the class (for example, the foundation of higher vocational students, their learning motivation, and self-management ability, etc.), the equipment involved in the teaching and learning process, policy formulation and safeguard mechanism concerning SD, as well as the surrounding environment. In practice, this study will help vocational schools understand the current situation of enhancing students’ key competencies for SD and try to provide evidence for vocational colleges to take reformation and transformation. For the future, researchers could make further efforts on exploring how a citizenry’s key competencies for SD will affect the performance of living in harmony with nature in the vocational education context.

References

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Citation

Liu, H., Hartmann, M., Hariyanto, D. & .Liu, M, (2019). Enhancing students’ key competencies for Sustainable Development in Chinese Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET): implications for TVET teachers. In: TVET@Asia, issue 14, 1-17. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue/issue-14/liu-etal(retrieved 31.12.2019).

The reform of TVET systems all over the world as well as in Asia is an essential request in a time of fast-change and sustainable development. Securing quality in vocational teacher education plays an important role in achieving the supply of adequately skilled workers in this context. To make sure that vocational teachers have the necessary competencies to fulfil the requirement in the new era and to facilitate the process of vocational teacher education, the professional profile of vocational teaching profession needs to be reviewed and consolidated. On the basis of literature review and considering features of “the greening of technical and vocational education and training”, we propose a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the context of sustainable development. This model represents a system of essential competencies within their cross – influences, based on necessary knowledge, which vocational teachers should acquire or continue to develop throughout their whole careers not only to meet the requirements of profession in fast – change world, but also to contribute to building ecologically sound economies. The model presented in graphical form helping users to capture quickly its key features was established to support the professional development of vocational teaching staff based on clearly defined competencies in accordance with tendency of sustainable development.

Keywords: sustainable development, green skills, VTE, vocational teacher education, pedagogical competence, didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, professional expertise, educating competence, self-reflection competence, dual system

1 The relevance of a model of pedagogical competence for greening TVET

Climate change has had a significant impact on human lives all over the world with many severe consequences such as melting ice, rising sea levels, heat waves, an increase of the number, duration and intensity of tropical storms and droughts, alarming global warming etc. Locating in regions regarded as the workbench of the world, many countries in East and Southeast Asia are suffering from social, economical, and ecological problems caused by climate change. Vietnam is one of the countries, which suffers most from natural catastrophes and climate change. Vietnam Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX Vietnam 2015) shows that Vietnam is suffering from six to seven tropical storms every year on average as a results of climate change; from 1990 to 2010, there were 74 floods in the river systems of Vietnam; severe drought, salinization, landslides, and other natural disasters have been hindering the development of Vietnam (MoRE & UNDP 2015). According to statistics, in the last 50 years, the average annual temperature of Vietnam has increased about 0.5 to 0.7 degrees Celsius. Also over this period, the sea level in Vietnam rose 20 cm. Annually, the damage caused by natural disasters in Vietnam is equivalent to 1.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) (MoRE & DoWRM 2015). Vietnam government has launched some relevant strategies to support green growth, such as becoming the first country in the world releasing a special report (SREX Vietnam 2015) based on framework SREX (Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2012 a,b), establishing Vietnam Panel on Climate Change (VPCC), which includes many leading scientists in field of environmental science in Vietnam, who will give advices on policies and scientific basis to government to gradually enhance climate change adaptation and to build ecologically solid economy. Green economy also requires a highly skilled workforce supplied by high quality vocational education and training system in accordance with tendency of sustainable development. The quality of vocational teacher affects the achievement of vocational learners directly. Therefore, it is important to build a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the world of sustainable development to contribute to building sustainable vocational education and training system not only for Vietnam, but also for other countries in East and Southeast Asia as well as in other regions in the world.

The proposal for a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers aims to:

• provide an instrument to reflect the quality of professional performance of vocational teachers, the quality of vocational teacher education, even the quality of engineer education and training on the basis of a common understanding of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers, especially in era of sustainable development.
• contribute to shaping the initial and in-service vocational teacher education, particularly in setting the objectives of vocational teacher education and training.
• promote the establishment and improvement of policies in terms of technical and vocational education and training (TVET), in particular the policies facilitating the initial establishment and development of TVET dual systems in vocational education and training, as well as the greening of vocational education.
• suggest a tool to vocational teachers to self-evaluate, to control and enhance their competencies as well as to set their professional goals in a rapidly changing world, in which the sustainable development is vital and urgently required.
• contribute a theoretical foundation for further discussions in the field of TVET and to provide a basis which can support the establishment of standards for vocational teacher as well as standards for the vocational teacher education (VTE) in new era.
• consolidating the profile of vocational teaching profession in accordance with the requirement of a sustainable development.

2 The international discussion on competence models in VTE

Through the literature analysis, we considered some theoretical foundations providing the useful knowledge on competencies of teacher in general and of vocational teacher specifically.

Košinár cited the idea of Frey that competences are always solid due to broad knowledge, which is classified by Kunter and other German authors into professional declarative and procedural knowledge (Košinár 2014, 31; Frey 2006, 163; Kunter et al. 2011, 14). Declarative knowledge as mentally propositional represented understanding can be described by semantic networks. Someone is aware of the knowledge and can verbalize it. Procedural knowledge is embodied knowledge: how to do something successfully. Terhart added action routines and forms of reflection to this competence domain, competence of teacher therefore relies on “scientifically sound knowledge, situationally flexible applicable routines, and on specially professional ethics representing the action-guiding standards of value” (Terhart 2000, 55; Košinár 2014, 32; Carle 2002,10). Before that, the famous American educator Shulman classified knowledge of teaching profession into five main dimensions: (1) general pedagogical knowledge relating to broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organization, (2) subject-matter content knowledge, (3) pedagogical content knowledge, (4) curricular knowledge, (5) other knowledge with reference to knowledge of educational context, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational purposes, values and their philosophical, historical grounds (Shulman 1986, 1987; Košinár 2014, 32-33). Other authors added consulting knowledge as the sixth dimension into this classification (Kunter et al. 2011, 29; Košinár 2014, 33).

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1987 in the United State, dedicated to promoting excellence in education) pointed out that professional competence of teacher should comprise:

• “specific declarative and procedural knowledge (competence in the narrower sense: knowledge and skills);
• professional values, beliefs, subjective theories, normative preferences and objectives;
• motivational orientations and metacognitive abilities and skills of professional self-regulation”

(NBPTS 2002, cited by Baumert & Kunter 2006, 481; Hopf 2012, 19)

Baumert, Kunter and their colleagues in framework of their COACTIV-study for PISA 2003 developed a heuristic model of professional competence for teacher, in particular teachers for mathematics, drawn on Schulman’s theory and combined with idea of NBPTS 2002. )The competence of teacher in this model includes personal dispositions (beliefs, values, goals, motivational orientations, self-regulation), knowledge and skills based on five professional knowledge areas (subject-matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical psychological knowledge, knowledge of organization and consulting knowledge), each area is continuously classified into many other facets (Baumert & Kunter 2011, 32; Košinár 2014, 50). This model was adopted, discussed, and even criticized by other authors. The main commentaryarising concentrated on the fact that there is no interconnection between the competence facets, in addition, the concrete relation between these competencies and classroom were not pointed out. (Lehmann-Grube & Nikolaus 2009, 61; Košinár 2014, 50-51).

Some other authors focused on the competence of teachers relating to classroom activities. Bauer (2005) introduced his model “Taxonomy of educational skills” with emphasis on pedagogical basic competence concerning teaching competence including six dimensions: (1) Clarifying of teaching objectives and structuring content; (2) building social structures of classroom; (3) controlling interaction; (4) communicating and informing; (5) designing of learning environments, (6) implementing of background work (planning and organization) (Bauer 2005, 20, Košinár 2014, 51).

Hopf (2012) also built in her dissertation four following competence groups of vocational teacher relating to teaching competence:

(1) Professional competence (Fachkompetenz) refers to the ability of vocational teachers to master the professional knowledge to be learned and taught;

(2) method competence (Methodenkompetenz) refers to abilities of vocational teachers to clearly structure the teaching contents, to clearly build the concrete teaching content, to master the diversity of teaching methods and to give the performance diagnostics;

(3) relational competence (Beziehungskompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to well build and maintain the relationship with vocational learners;

(4) controlling competence (Kontrollkompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to guide the vocational learners. (Hopf 2012, 60-62).

To build four above competence groups, Hopf considered Weinert’s and Klippert’s ideas about competence of teacher. According to Weinert (2000), teachers need four competence areas to have good teaching performance: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) competence of guiding learners in classroom. According to Klippert (2004), teachers need ten following competencies to effectively teach: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) method competence; (5) instruction competence; (6) moderation competence; (7) consulting competence; (8) emotional competence; (9) competence of guiding learners in classroom; (10) cooperation competence.

Nevertheless just competencies concerning teaching ability are not adequate for determining of competence of teacher. It can be noted, that above concepts have not taken the relations between school and social context into consideration yet. Nieke (2012) added this factor when he gave another model, in which the competence of analysis of social context was added. According to Nieke’s model, teacher’s pedagogical competence consist of two parts: professional actions standing in center, including five phases ((1) determining of teaching objectives, (2) analyzing action situation, (3) planning, (4) implementing of teaching action with direct interaction, conveying of teaching content and action in organization, (5) evaluation) based on“background” competencies including competencies of analysis of social context (Gesellschaftsanalyse), self reflexion (Selbstreflexion) and diagnosis of situation (Situationsdiagnose). (Nieke 2012, 51; Košinár 2014, 54). This model of Nieke was appreciated due to the consideration of social context. However, as most of above theories, this structure faced to the commentary, that the interconnection among competencies was not taken into account (Košinár 2014, 53). Besides, the competence of vocational teacher specifically has not been analyzed in a concrete and systematic manner yet.

Soysouvanh and his colleagues, when developing a framework of competence standards of vocational teacher for Lao PDR, sketched five following competence areas: (1) Competence area of Acting in an exemplary manner; (2) competence area of Teaching, (3) competence area of Educating, (4) competence area of Assessment, (5) competence area of Self-Development and Innovation (Soysouvanh et al. 2013). These competence areas were built in consideration of concrete situation of Lao PDR and serve the actual situation in Lao, however can be used as a reference on the way to finding a common understanding of competence of vocational teacher in common sense. While doing their research, Soysouvanh and his colleagues based their research on a broad variety of international scientific literature, one of those is Hartmann’s notion about competence of vocational teachers (Soysouvanh et al. 2013).

In oder to contribute to providing an insight into competences of vocational teachers, Hartmann (2012) thoroughly developed a profile of vocational teacher profession with a diversified description of competences of vocational teachers based on the German experience. In this picture, the competences of vocational teachers were classified into two groups: competences relating to framework conditions and competences relating to professional activity content. In group of competences relating to framework conditions, Hartmann pointed out some relevant competences of vocational teachers, such as:

• analytical competence relates to the ability of vocational teachers to analyze the teaching content, the prerequisites of learners, the institutional teaching environment and the time structure;
• didactic pedagogical competence, which means that vocational teachers must master many diversified teaching methods to apply them appropriately in accordance with institutional conditions of vocational school and teaching objectives;
• negotiation competence, which describes that vocational teachers must be able to cooperate with colleagues to carry out her/his pedagogical duties in the context of school organization and for the common development of school;
• innovation competence refers to the fact that vocational teacher should be able to recognize her/his own needs of advanced training and improve her/his deficits.
• etc.

In group of competences relating to professional activity content, Hartmann emphasized many necessary competencies of vocational teacher, for examples:

• ability to analyse the picture of profession (which is learned and taught) and curriculum;
• ability to choose, structure the teaching content and to determine the teaching procedure in accordance with tendency of competence-oriented teaching as well as in consideration of working and learning places in dual system (cooperation between vocational school and factory/ company);
• ability to capture the fast changing technologies, to grasp processes of work in the real workplaces, to link real work processes with professional learning processes;
• etc.

A series of concrete competencies in each group was presented and discussed in a practical manner, analyzed adequately in detail (see Hartmann 2012, 79-118), that expressed the complexity and diversity of competencies of vocational teacher in real professional context.

Respecting the idea that competence of vocational teacher is still a complex, ill-structured domain facing the fast-change world with the tendency of sustainable development, we suggest a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher with a coherent structure and the clear interconnection among competence areas that might help accommodate this complexity and reach a common understanding of this object for a new era of sustainability in development.

3 Model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher as a basis for VTE with special respect to the Greening of TVET

The proposed model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers builds on the six competency domains, that have the close relations with each other, affect and enhance each other, rely on (or are influence by) the pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge/ skills. An overview of this model is illustrated by the following graphic:

Figure 1: Model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers

More detailed descriptions of all components as well as the interactions among these components in the model are provided in the below section.

A.Six competence domains:

Teaching competence refers to the ability of teachers to carry out theoretical, practical or integrated instruction in the implementation of their teaching duties successfully. Teachers have to be able to determine learning objectives and teaching content on the basis of considering individual properties of vocational learners (e.g. their existing background, their social/ family/ personal characteristics, their needs etc.), as well as on the basis of the philosophy of education and training, the curricula and the corresponding link with the real work processes. Vocational teachers also have to capture, master many different teaching methods, and can choose the appropriate teaching methods for the lesson and the relevant measures for evaluating of learning results in accordance with learning objectives, learning content as well as with the tendency of pupil-centered teaching. Teaching competence also refers to the fact that the teachers can plan lessons, design a suitable and optimized learning and working environment, control and coordinate the learning process in the classroom flexibly, design interesting activities and relevant learning tasks to motivate the vocational learners, manage the learners as well as groups of learners, interact with vocational learners suitably and dominate teaching materials/ media/ tools. The vocational teachers are also expected to be sensible and creative enough to facilitate the learning processes of vocational learners, promote their active learning and their creativity, stimulate their intellectual development and help them in enhancement the professional skills and in achieving their learning goals.

Educating competence relates to the ability of teachers to support the vocational learners to improve their personality traits, e.g.: Through the teaching methods, the advice and the way of organization of work processes / learning processes, teachers can help the vocational learners in establishing the scientific worldview, practicing the discipline style, building awareness of occupational safety, environmental protection, as well as the awareness of saving (saving energy, fuel, material, etc.), the honesty, the cooperation etc. The teacher is also a role model, a good example for the vocational learners in terms of moral virtues such as: honesty, fairness, dependability, responsibility, etc. Especially, nowadays human beings have to face the ongoing climate change as well as risks of health problems and difficulties of living condition due to rapidly changing environmental conditions such as changing precipitation, melting snow and ice, altered hydrological systems and water resources, the warming and local changes in temperature etc. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – IPCC 2014, 4,6) as the consequences of human activities altering the atmospheric composition, that is the pressing issue of our time. The alarming climate change like the global warming requires the solutions urgently, and it can be noted that today sustainable development plays a very important role in all fields of the life including TVET. For this reason, it must be emphasized that vocational teachers in general and the technical vocational teachers in particular have to take responsibility to educate the vocational learners about the awareness of environmental protection. This competence should be considered as an important competence of vocational teachers nowadays and should be compiled and emphasized in professional profile of vocational teacher profession. The teachers should introduce the vocational learners to the environmentally friendly production processes and environmentally friendly technologies. It requires the modern, progressive knowledge and skills in terms of professional expertise of vocational teachers. The teachers must therefore always update and evolve their knowledge and skills, capture the changing technologies in order to be able to implement this educating duty. Additionally, it may be noted that the educating processes take place through the teaching processes/ during the teaching processes. That is why the educating competence has the close connection with the teaching competence, communicative and language competence, and other competencies, in particular with professional expertise.

Professional expertise/ professional competence concerns the abilities of teachers to master the subject-matter content/ scientific and occupational content, to keep it up to date and to use it appropriately, adequately within the classroom. Knowledge and skills differ greatly between professional fields, and vocational teachers must possess the deep knowledge and solid skills of the occupational field in which they teach in the flow of technology changes. Professional expertise is critically important to vocational teachers because the fact that vocational teachers have inadequate fundamentals of content knowledge and work skills definitely leads to the fact of providing the labour market with insufficiently skilled workers. For that reason, the vocational teachers should constantly develop their professional competence, in this case, the competence of self-reflection and improving qualifications and competence of linking real work processes with the professional learning processes along with knowledge on methodology of scientific research are very necessary and useful for the teachers to consolidate and expand their expertise. And the expertise certainly affects on the teaching competence and on educating competence, for example, if the teacher wants to educate the vocational pupils/ students about the awareness of environmental protection, it requires the specialized knowledge, skills in terms of environmentally friendly technologies, or when a vocational teacher wants to carry out a lesson, he/ she must coordinate the technical occupational content, so he/she definitely needs the expertise beyond teaching skills. So it can be stated that the professional expertise / professional competence is tightly connected with other competencies: it supports greatly other competencies and is strengthened by other competencies. Furthermore, nowadays humans have to cope with the quick-change world, the technology is changing rapidly, the industrialization occurs in many regions all over the world, especially in developing countries as well as in Asia, causes the environmental and health problems not also in Asia but also throughout the world, so it requires that the vocational teachers be able to keep their expertise up to date in the flow of technology changes, capture the new technologies, especially green technologies regarding renewable energies as well as green solutions for occupation to be learned and taught to contribute to environment protection and sustainable development.

In a broader sense, considering professional expertise as a critically vital competence of vocational teachers to compile and emphasize this competence in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession can also contribute to promoting of establishing the relevant policies relating to the investment for TVET field including adequate providing of modern machines, instruments, equipment for vocational schools, as well as increasing of vocational teachers’ salary in many countries, especially in developing countries with emerging economies and institutional voids. As we know, with low wages and obsolete equipment making vocational teachers lack appropriate experience, it is so difficult for vocational teachers to improve their expertise and to catch up new technologies.

Competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes describes the ability of teachers to integrate real work processes into vocational learning processes. It requires vocational teachers to consider the cooperative learning places and the content of the curriculum, which should contain vocational knowledge and skills in a practical manner. Teachers need to understand the processes of work in the real workplaces (factories, companies, businesses etc.) and be able to analyze the work processes. They need knowledge of job/work analysis in the field of vocational education and curriculum development. On the basis o results of job/work analysis, the teachers choose appropriate contents for curriculum and design the learning tasks in accordance with work duties, work tasks for vocational learners. In addition, teachers must try to find the possibilities of cooperation with other learning places beyond vocational school such as companies/ factories and try to exploit the chances of in-company training with these possibilities of cooperation. They also can use the opportunities of cooperation with colleagues from the other learning places. In countries that have the dual system in vocational training, such as Germany, it is easier for the teachers to find the cooperation with other factories/ companies, but in many other countries, particularly in developing countries (such as Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia etc. .), where there is no dual system, it requires the vocational teachers to make efforts to find the possibilities of cooperation with other factories / businesses/ companies. For this reason, the vocational teachers need to have the communicative competence and the flexibility to establish the personal relationships as well as the working relationships with colleagues in other working and learning places, with people in co-partners (companies, factories).In fact, there is a pressing issue in TVET field in developing countries, that the TVET graduates often have skill shortages or inappropriate skills and have to be trained again by the employer units. To contribute to shaking off this status, the competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes of vocational teachers needs to be added, compiled in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession. When the teachers possess this competence, they can help vocational learners acquire real skills or necessary work experience to meet the needs of employers and catch up new technologies in the companies/ factories, especially when the industrial companies nowadays constantly upgrade their technologies and have tendency to become environmentally friendly to attain the goal of sustainable development. With competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes, the vocational teachers are able to contribute not only to supplying the adequately qualified workers for recruitment, but also to promoting the dual system in their country. This competence also supports, consolidates professional expertise (professional competence), teaching competence and helps teachers constantly review the status of occupation to be learned and taught in flow of fastly rearranged work processes, update their knowledge and skills and through that, enhance their competence of  self-reflection and improving qualification.

Communicative and language competence involves the ability of teachers to use language and communicative skills to convey the learning content logically and attractively, to convince and to advice the vocational learners to educate them as well as to help them in learning processes, to moderate in the organization of open learning processes, to communicate effectively with parents of learners, with the colleagues as well as with the local and international co-partners (companies, factories, other vocational schools, regional or international organizations). This competence is an especially important competence for a teacher including the vocational teacher, because teachers always have to interact with other people/stakeholders (e.g. trainees, colleagues, businesses, factories, social services etc.). The interaction with the vocational learners happens in the process of conveying learning contents, controlling the classroom, consulting the learners. The communicative and language competence, therefore, supports the teaching competence and educating competence greatly. Knowledge of professional educational psychology and didactics along with the competence of self-reflection is very useful for the vocational teachers in improving this competence. In addition, the organization of teaching as well as the concrete curriculum is often determined in a collaboration with colleagues, in other words, in agreement with teaching staff, so the vocational teacher should be able to interact effectively with colleagues to co-make decisions and to share the instructional strategies to each other. The cooperation with other learning places (businesses, factories, companies) to link real work processes with professional learning processes also requires the negotiation skill of the vocational teachers. In a broader sense, nowadays the tendency of global cooperation plays a relevant role in all fields including TVET, for that, the vocational teachers should be able to use foreign languages besides communication skills to join in the international projects as well as to have international cooperative relationships to exchange the experiences and information, especially information about the technology changes as well as the new environmentally friendly technologies in field of TVET, through that they can improve their professional expertise. Thus, it can be stated that the communicative and language competence makes impacts on other competencies (in particular directly on the teaching competence and educating competence) and the vocational teachers need this competence to carry out their professional duties.

Competence of self-reflection and improving the qualifications refers to the abilities of teachers to reflect their own professional performance, the self-images, the professional goals, the professional ethics and/in order to improve the qualifications and professional quality. Vocational teachers should reflect on one’s own teaching result on the basis of analyzing and interpreting the pupils learning outcomes and the external results of the evaluations. Teachers should constantly control their professional competence (professional expertise), teaching competence, educating competence, communicative and language competence, competence of linking real  work processes with professional learning processes to improve these competencies during the process of execution of professional duties. They have to practice continuously and keep themselves up to date on new pedagogical theories, new technologies, especially the environmentally friendly technologies, as well as on the world of work. Lifelong learning is unavoidable task of vocational teachers, especially technical vocational teachers.

According to the above analysis, it can be stated that the pedagogical competence of vocational teachers is produced by the connection of all above networked competency domains that make impacts on each other and develop their effects with each other. These competency domains are based on (or influenced by) the below pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge and skills.

B. Educational basic knowledge:

Didactics (knowledge of teaching and learning process) supplies the deep knowledge of teaching objectives along with strategies of lesson planning, teaching contents, teaching methods (including concepts, concrete methods and teaching techniques), teaching materials, media, measures and processes of evaluation/ assessment, as well as the knowledge of learning process (learning theories, cognitive development, learning motivation, etc.).

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) relates to the application of didactics and pedagogical knowledge for teaching of a particular subject/ discipline/ occupation in consideration of the characteristics of this subject/ discipline/ occupation as well as the prior knowledge of learners and other matters of teaching and learning such as diversified teaching strategies, curriculum, instructional materials etc. PCK is compatible with Shulman’s theory (1986) about how the teacher can transform the subject matter into teaching (Schulman 1986; Koehler, Mishra 2009; Košinár 2014), but it should be emphasized, that this PCK relies not only on characteristics of scientific discipline but also on characteristics of vocational field.

Curricular knowledge refers to teacher’s deep knowledge not also about choosing and compiling of teaching program and teaching materials (Shulman 1986, Košinár 2014), but also about the developing vocational curriculum in consideration of the relationships between a vocational field and other relevant vocational fields, especially based on job analysis (also known as work analysis) accomplished by many different methods, such as DACUM (Collum 1985), observation of workers’ performance, interview and procedural review (Cascio &Aguinis 2005; Wilson 2007),job analysis worksheets; surveys, work assessments, JASP (Hartley, 1999) etc.

Pedagogical foundations and psychology cover the understanding of the philosophy of education and training; the intercultural, historical, sociological knowledge in terms of education; pedagogical psychology (developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, work psychology, features of trainees, features of vocational teachers such as ethics, skills, mission, interests, etc.), and consulting knowledge.

C. The additional knowledge and/or skills

Methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research: can help vocational teachers in doing research to improve their expertise.

Work – Technology – Education: provides theoretical basis in terms of relationships between work, technology and education.

Teaching technology: relates to knowledge and skills to teach with technology, from low-tech tools to high-tech tools such as presentation software, online learning etc.

etc.

The additional knowledge can be added and expanded according to the needs in reality.

4 Implications for the development of TVET-systems as a basis for the enhancement of the Greening

Technical vocational teachers contribute to producing worker resource in technical fields. The industrial wastes, the emission from obsolete technologies and the use of fossil fuels cause many serious environmental problems, so when the technical workers do not master new technologies and cannot operate their job in an environmentally friendly manner, they can contribute to causing environment pollution and climate change. Therefore, the training of highly skilled workforce with adequate capabilities and perception of protecting environment is very necessary. This goal cannot be achieved without eligible vocational teachers because the quality of vocational teachers affects the attainment of vocational learners directly. Along with above suggested model, some following initial implications at macro, meso and micro level are offered:

4.1 In terms of policies

At macro level, the governments should have the appropriate public funding for vocational education and training because vocational education plays a significant role when society today needs not only elite school but also mass school. This investment should include increasing vocational teacher’s salary (especially in developing countries, where the vocational teachers often do not have motivation to improve their competencies due to low salary which does not meet the needs of their life) to draw talented people into the field of vocational teaching, providing modern machines, equipments for vocational schools to facilitate efficient work regarding green technologies, renewable energy, new material etc. In addition, in developing countries, it is necessary to have efforts to improve institutional voids to compel industrial companies to comply with regulations regarding environment protection and to encourage these companies to cooperate with vocational schools to gradually build the dual system in field of TVET.

4.2 In terms of scientific research in vocational education

Using knowledge of methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research (mentioned as additional knowledge/skills in the above suggested model), the vocational teachers should do research in their subject frequently, besides carrying out their teaching duties, to master the up-to-date technologies with solutions of saving energy, protecting environment. On the other hand, the positive results of scientific research (at the companies, at the universities, in the institutes, etc.) regarding the green technology need to be transferred into vocational schools and the vocational teachers need to be coached based on these results of scientific research.

4.3 In terms of school administration and organization

School administrators should support vocational teachers to enhance their effective performance through providing them more pedagogical autonomy, helping them find relationship with companies/ factories on behalf of school/ institution, giving them opportunities/conditions to upgrade their expertise (for example: organizing professional advanced courses for frequently training vocational teachers, expanding the domestic and international cooperation so that vocational teachers have chances to update and exchange knowledge and experience of new technologies, especially environmentally friendly technologies, equipping with modern machinery as much as possible to facilitate process of working and cultivating of teachers etc.). Each vocational school should make efforts to build eligibility criteria to recruit teachers as well as to build accordant systems to control teacher’s competences, e.g. through feedback from pupils/ students, from enterprises or through controlling out-come quality. In addition, to organize competitions, movements and conferences regarding green technology and sustainable development in field of vocational teaching should be appreciated and expanded.

4.4 In terms of vocational teacher education

Applying the suggested model of competences with strengthened structure as an instrument, vocational teachers in the present era should be aware of their essential competences in order to be effective in the classroom as well as to fulfill new requirements of vocational teaching profession in the rapidly changing world in which the tendency of sustainable development is critical and unavoidable. With an insight into necessary competences, which they should or must acquire, vocational teachers should have cognizance of their own duties and responsibilities, when facing the world with fatal climate change and global warming. They should constantly self – reflect their performance to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses among the six stated competency domains to promote the strengths and improve the weaknesses to pursue their career professionally. They should commit themselves to cultivating six stated competence domains to ensure necessary capabilities to carry out their duties adequately. In vocational teacher education, the setting of training objectives should be implemented based on the accordant understanding of required competences of vocational teachers in a world of sustainable development.

4.5 In terms of engineer education and training

Securing the quality of engineer education is very significant, because vocational teachers cannot implement their main duties (teaching and educating) without their expertise, in particular when green technologies always require updated knowledge and skills from vocational teachers. Therefore, measures to ensure the quality of training engineers at technical universities should be built and strengthened. On the other hand, in engineer education as well as vocational teacher education and training, factors “life-long learning”, “learning of learning methods” and “scientific research methodology” should be taken into account in context of the fact that knowledge of human beings develops rapidly every day. The combination of professional expertise, pedagogical competencies and awareness of duties and responsibilities concerning environment protection will help vocational teachers promote their roles in their profession adequately.

4.6 In terms of cooperation of learning venues

Building the dual system in field of TVET is very necessary to improve the negative image of TVET in East and Southeast Asia, where the TVET graduates must be often trained again by the employers due to the lack of experience and due to the inadequate curriculum, which often has no relation with real work processes. The cooperation of vocational schools and companies will help not only the vocational learners, but also the vocational teachers in improving their competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes. The building of dual system cannot be based only on the effort of individual vocational teacher, but it also needs the support from policy system, from the strategies of school administration.

4.7 In terms of development of curriculum, development of learning materials and development of assessment materials

The curriculum for VTE needs to be compiled in respect of the green skills of vocational teachers with their cross – influences. Due to the interweaving and the ongoing interaction between these competences in a strong structure, it is required to have the certain unification in terms of content regarding the greening on different subjects (didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, curriculum development, pedagogical psychology etc.). For example:

• On the subject of vocational pedagogical psychology, it is essential to emphasize the roles and the interaction of the above suggested green skills when discussing features of vocational teachers;
• On the subject of didactics or pedagogical content knowledge, it is necessary to mention the greening when discussing learning objectives, learning contents, teaching methods, learning evaluations: (1) Learning objectives: It is relevant to discuss, which learning objectives (in terms of knowledge, in terms of skills, in terms of awareness) regarding the greening that the vocational learners should achieve; (2) Learning contents: It is essential to emphasize, how important it is, when the up-to-date technologies with the solutions of saving energy and environmental protection are conveyed as learning contents for vocational learners; (3) Teaching methods: Besides of discussing general teaching methods in education, it is also interesting and actual to discuss, which teaching forms could be used to wake the awareness of environmental protection of the vocational learners up; (4) Learning evaluations: Besides of discussing the forms and criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding expertise as the observable and measurable behaviors of vocational learners (the first factor), it is necessary to discuss the forms or criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding the greening (the second factor) of vocational learners. The development of assessment materials for vocational learners, which integrate two mentioned factors, is also a relevant theme for educators in the present era of sustainable development.
• On the subject of vocational curriculum development: The vocational teachers need to be conveyed the method to develop the vocational curriculum based on the results of job/ work analysis in respect of modern technology with solutions of saving energy and environmental protection in this occupation. The learning materials for vocational learners also need to be compiled based on this spirit.

5 Conclusion

In Vietnam, the awareness of environmental protection is rather low and the sector of green economy is still small. Now, there are neither the green occupations nor the requirements of green skills for green occupations in Vietnam (TVET-Vietnam Organization 2015). However, Vietnamese government has launched the Green Growth Strategy to deal with the environmental and socio-economic challenges towards sustainable development, in which, the Greening TVET is held for an important issue to develop an adequate workforce with green skills to meet the requirements of Green economy development. A series of activities on “Greening TVET” in the frame of the Vietnamese – German Programme Reform of TVET in Vietnam took place, e.g.: “Greening TVET” at the Green-Biz 2013 exhibition; The International Leadership Training (ILT) on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Job”; Seven Vietnamese young professionals graduated from GIZ-supported training on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Jobs”; “Green TVET” on a mission; Green skills development – essential for the transition to green growth; etc. (TVET – Vietnam Organization, 2015). It can be stated, that the Green Skills development for the existing occupations and for new occupations in Vietnam as well as in other countries in East and Southeast Asia is very crucial. The suggested model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers for greening TVET and the above initial recommendations could contribute to consolidating the professional profile of vocational teaching occupation and to process of Green Skills development in the field of TVET.

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Citation

Diep, P.C. & Hartmann, M. (2016). Green Skills in Vocational Teacher Education – a model of pedagogical competence for a world of sustainable development. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-19. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/diep_hartmann_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016)