Multimedia design is a popular profession across the world and involves the integration of multiple forms of media-related activities in various design fields, such as graphic print design, web design, and digital film production. Different countries implement different training models for preparing learners for a career in multimedia design, such as product-oriented training in Vietnam and work-process-oriented training in Germany. This paper argues that, while both of these training models have their advantages and limitations, combining their features into a new multimedia design vocational training model could prepare workers to become more resilient in an increasingly competitive future work environment. Using the method of theoretical analysis, which is a qualitative research approach, this paper outlines the essential competencies that TVET teaching staff need to be able to implement this new training model. In addition to the general competencies that all TVET teachers need, such as educating competence, communication and language competence, and the ability to engage in self-reflection and self-improvement, TVET teachers in the field of multimedia design must acquire specific knowledge and skills regarding to teaching competence, professional competencies and the competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes. These competencies are an important prerequisite for implementing product-oriented and work-process-oriented training effectively. Based on an analysis of these specific competencies, the paper offers recommendations on measures for training multimedia design teachers to develop their product-oriented and work process-oriented teaching capacities.

Keywords: pedagogical competencies, vocational teacher education (VTE)

1        Introduction: Vocational Training in the field of Multimedia Design

1.1        About the Multimedia Design Profession

The multimedia design profession in Vietnam, as in many other countries, often comprises three subfields: graphic print design, web design and digital film production. A common feature of the profession is that all three of these subfields in their “external process structure” include the same work phases, consisting of getting a client’s order, producing a draft design that meets the client’s goal, changing the design according to client requirements, and producing the final design using computer technology. This comparability creates the basis for a rough framework for describing these similar work processes. In order to create design products, media designers use the overarchingly typical medium of information technology – in particular, computers in combination with peripheral devices (e.g., printing and editing technology or corresponding external services) and diverse software technologies (e.g., 3D Studio Max, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Dreamweaver CS5, Adobe Flex 4, Adobe Premiere, etc.). However, the inputs and outputs for processing different orders or contracts are completely different across the three subfields. Likewise, the use of software differs across the three subfields, as it needs to be adapted to the external process structure for work activities as well as the work phases of the work processes.

1.2        Vocational Training in the Field of Multimedia Design in Vietnam

In Vietnam, vocational training for the multimedia design profession takes place at all levels – from basic level, to intermediate level, to college level. Basic training is available through information technology training centers and small training institutions, which provide specialized software courses lasting from one to six months to meet the requirements of the profession. Examples of the software taught in these courses include CorelDraw, Illustrator for drawing graphics, Photoshop for image processing, 3D software for 3D modelling, and specialized software for filmmaking and post-production film processing (Training Center Danang 2020; Training Center Nhatnghe 2020; Training Center Vitadu 2020; College FPT 2020; Training Center Zone Media 2020). In larger schools and training institutions, as well as in longer courses lasting from six to 18 months, learners are trained in a variety of interactive software in combination with basic theoretical training on designing multimedia products.

At intermediate-level schools and in some large private schools, learners can attend two-year training courses lasting four semesters. Private schools are free to design their own training programs, while state secondary vocational schools must offer training in line with the national qualifications framework, using intermediate-level curricula pertaining to specific occupations such as graphic design (job code 5480216), web design (job code 5480217), computer-aided drawing and design (job code 5480214), and film production (job code 5210230) (Arena-Multimedia 2020; Training Center IDC 2020; Admission Information 2020).

At colleges, learners can attend a two-and-a-half or three-year course (five or six semesters) in computer engineering and software application (Admission Information 2020).

1.3        The Future of Work and the Need for Transferable Skills

In modern life, especially in the Industry 4.0 era, the demand for multimedia products (such as print media products, digital films and websites) has grown, as has the demand for appropriately skilled workers in the multimedia design field. Furthermore, given rapid changes in technology and software, the context of a post-modern society and the economic situation of the world in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, the multimedia profession has become more competitive.

Workers in this sector need transferable competencies to remain flexible in the workplace, to be able to redirect their skills to take on a variety of work roles/tasks and to benefit from emerging career opportunities. Accordingly, workers in the multimedia design field must be trained in not only the use of specific software to produce a certain product, but also competencies that are unlikely to change over time, such as advising clients, creating design perspectives/concepts, creating project design plans, demonstrating products, providing customer care, etc. These transferable competencies will enable them to adapt their skills to remain competitive when the job situation changes.

1.4        Current Requirements for Multimedia Design Teachers in Vietnam

Currently, multimedia design teachers in Vietnam have to meet the following minimum standards (VNSkill Academy 2020; Training Center DPI 2020; FPT Education 2020):

• Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in Arts or Graphic Design
• Proficiency in using software such as CorelDraw, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe InDesign, Adobe Dreamweaver CS5, Adobe Flex 4, Adobe Premiere, 3ds Max and Maya
• Ability to read and conduct research in English
• Pedagogical knowledge and skills, as well as the ability to design and deliver training programs
• Professional experience and the ability to deliver practical training.
• Aesthetic taste and creativity.

1.5        Current Model for Training Multimedia Design Teachers in Vietnam

The current model for training TVET teachers in the multimedia design field in Vietnam is a consecutive training model. Most teachers gain professional skills at an Art University as pre-service training, after which they immediately become vocational teachers. Then, while working, they continue to be trained in pedagogical skills as in-service training.

However, to be able to deliver high-quality training in multimedia design, vocational teachers also require training with respect to real work processes in their profession. Therefore, the question to be addressed in this paper is: Which competencies do TVET teachers in the field of multimedia design need to fulfil the current and future requirements of their jobs? In answering this question, we distinguish between the generic competencies needed by all TVET teachers and the specific competencies required in the field of multimedia design, combining product-oriented and work-process-oriented training. In the final section, we offer recommendations on how teacher training in this field should be adapted to meet these requirements.

2        Product-Oriented and Work-Process-Oriented Training in the Field of Multimedia Design: A Comparison of Two Training Models

Different countries implement different training models to prepare learners for a career in multimedia design. Two typical models are product-oriented training, which is implemented in Vietnam, and work-process-oriented training, which is practiced in Germany.

2.1        Model 1: Product-oriented training (Vietnam)

Product-oriented training is well suited for the field of multimedia design, because one of the characteristics of this profession is that the practitioner needs to be able to produce specific, aesthetically pleasing products according to market requirements. Popular multimedia design products include websites, print graphics and film. In Vietnam, multimedia design students are usually trained using a product-oriented approach. Figure 1 illustrates the training model used to teach multimedia design in Vietnam. The goal of this model is to train graduates to be able to independently make products for customers relating to the subfield (e.g., graphic print design, web design and digital film production) in which they are trained.

The main output in the subfield of graphic print design is an “on surface” printed product – that is, a static product that is replicated through print cloning, whereby a design is printed in large quantities using modern printing technology. The process requires converting the graphic design product file in order to prepress for printing. Many graphic design companies in Vietnam do not have printers and therefore have to work with external printing services to produce the outputs that their clients want at the quality and price that their clients require. This creates a three-way working relationship between the graphic designer, the client and the print service provider.

In the subfield of web design, the main product is a programmed website that can be displayed on computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc. and be viewed by the general public or interested members of the target audience. When designing websites, web designers must use digital technologies. Each web product is a programmed software product, which is uploaded by the designer to the Internet (www.) and then used by the customer after it has been handed over. Web designers are therefore responsible for training customers in the use and maintenance of the website.

The main products in the subfield of digital film production are varied representations with moving images for television or other media outlets (e.g., the internet for computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc.), which are processed using film projection software. The big difference in the working process of digital film production compared to the other two subfields is that the design ideas and concepts used in digital film production are presented in the form of a script/scenarios and a storyboard. On large film projects, digital film production requires media designers to collaborate with many partners, such as directors, camera operators, audio editors and actors. The film making process requires complex film editing techniques using specialized film editing software.

Combining product-oriented training with action-oriented teaching and learning is a concept that is particularly suitable for delivering vocational training in the field of multimedia design. Action-oriented teaching and learning is a popular didactical concept in German-speaking countries (Germany, Austria and Switzerland) as well as in other European countries. In her dissertation, Diep P.C. has considered the characteristics of action-oriented teaching and learning from the perspective of a number of German authors, such as Jank & Meyer (1991), Hortsch (1999), Gudjons (2008), Wöll (2011), Hartmann & Mayer (2012). She identified eight characteristics of action-oriented teaching and learning (Diep 2019):

• It is not a concrete teaching method but a concept for guiding teaching design;
• It is situation-oriented teaching and learning, and has practical and social meaning;
• It is product-oriented teaching and learning;
• It is holistic and action-oriented;
• It is flexible and open in terms of content, teaching methods, learning locations etc.;
• It entails learning with many senses;
• It fosters an interest in learning;
• It develops learners’ professional action capacity (including their professional, social, personal and methodological competencies).

Through the creation of learning products (in general) and vocational products (in particular), learners acquire the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are necessary for professional activities.

2.2        Model 2: Work-process-oriented training (Germany)

The work-process-oriented training model is dominant in the field of TVET and is used in Germany as well as many other developed countries to train learners for careers in multimedia design (Spöttl & Loose 2018; Pirzada 2018). Work-process-oriented training is a common didactical concept that has been discussed by many German vocational theorists. For example, Becker (2008, 2) affirms that “a work-process-oriented didactic provides the connection between empirically identified challenges in work processes, the professional competencies identified in practical work, and their importance for the development of learners’ professional competencies”. Based on this definition, work-process-oriented training refers to teaching and learning in a professional context linked to real work processes. Conscious attention is paid to the fact that individuals (as well as apprentices) are closely related to the world of work, so vocational training should be closely linked with professional practice (Rauner & Bremer 2004; Berben 2008; Kutscha 2008). In this training concept, knowledge of the work-process relates to an understanding of the general process in which each individual participates in production, relevant techniques, work organization, social dimensions and the overall system (Kruse 1986, 189).

Figure 2 shows the dimensions of the work-process, according to Becker (2008). Becker (2013, 10-11) also raised key questions to consider when designing vocational training courses to ensure that they reflect real work-processes from the world of work:

(1) Tasks: Which professional tasks/problems should be assigned to the learner with respect to the learner’s competency level? What are the implications of these tasks for the profession and learners? How often does this task appear in professional life, and how difficult is it to execute?

(2) Objects: What objects are handled during the work-process? [Objects can be physical (e.g., products) or abstract (e.g., simulations, program code, etc.), tools, people (e.g., customers) or processes (e.g., work plans, quality management, etc).]  How are those work objects structured? Is it possible to design those objects differently? Is it possible to design a different work-process to get results?

(3) Tools: What tools are used? What is the function of those tools? Are there any alternative tools?

(4) Work organization: What kind of work organization is necessary and suitable for the work process? Who does which task? What are possible action options for implementing the process?

(5) Methods: What methods can be used to do the job?

(6) Requirements: What are the requirements of customers, society, law, company, colleagues, partners, etc. in the work process?

(7) Outcome: What are the work process outcomes? How are the results evaluated?

Figure 3 depicts the main focus areas of the multimedia design profession in Germany. During the first stage (2 years) of training, students taking the “Digital and Print Media Designer” program in Germany acquire general knowledge and professional skills and learn general aspects of the multimedia profession (KMK 2015, 7). In the next stage (1 year), they choose a work phase / field of the multimedia design profession, such as Consulting and Planning, Concept and Idea Development or Design, to study in depth. This means that, to create products for customers, learners from different fields of work or from different fields of action must work together on each project. The rationale behind this training model is that, after graduation, learners usually take on only a certain part of the job chain (such as consulting, developing concepts, or designing and technical assistance) and are not in charge during all stages, from communicating with clients to creating final products.

2.3        Advantages and limitations of each training model:

The advantage of model 1 (product-oriented training) is that, by the end of their training, learners are able to independently create products relating to their profession, such as websites, print designs or films. However, the downside is that learners are not trained in the complex knowledge and skills required in real work processes, such as planning skills, client persuasion skills, consulting skills, and the skills needed to develop creative ideas. Therefore, although learners can take on all stages of the work process, from receiving contracts to creating final products, their professional competencies at each stage are not high-level.

However, if trained according to model 2 (work-process-oriented training) graduates can undertake certain tasks in the project (such as advising clients, developing concepts and ideas, and design and technical assurance) at a high level. However, the disadvantage of this model is that workers in different fields have to cooperate with each other to create finished products for clients. Each worker is dependent on others, instead of being in charge of the whole work process, from receiving contracts to creating final products.

Having considered the advantages and disadvantages of the two training models, the authors propose a new multimedia design vocational training model, which combines product-oriented training and work-process–oriented training in order to leverage the advantages and limit the disadvantages of each. This new training model could prepare workers to become more flexible and resilient in an increasingly competitive future work environment.

3        Combined Product-Oriented and Work-Process-Oriented Approach

In arriving at the design of the combined product-oriented and work-process-oriented training model, we first analyzed the typical work processes in each subfield (graphic print design, web design and digital film production) of the multimedia design profession to detect commonalities and differences, and then focused on the commonalities as the basis for creating a common basic vocational training model for the multimedia design field.

3.1        Analysis of Typical Work Processes in the Multimedia Design Profession

The phases of a work process can be displayed as a process chain to depict an external process structure for work activities, which then offers analytical access for a more detailed description of work requirements along the process chain. Work phases differ by subfield of the multimedia design profession, but there are some commonalities across the three subfields.

Looking first at the subfield of graphic print design, the typical work process can be depicted as shown in Figure 4. The work phases are: client order, project definition, planning, analysis of customer specifications, development of the design concept, presentation to clients, production/print and evaluation of results (Pujagut, Garcia, & Oliver 2010; Hembree 2006; Ambrose & Harris 2009; Dabner, Stewart, & Zempol 2014).

In the subfield of web design (see Figure 5), individual phases in the process chain are: client order, project planning, design of the web structure, presentation, programming, trial/launch phase, and post-launch phase (Baumgardt 2000; Dabbs & Campbell 2004; Graver & Jura 2012; Dabner, Stewart, & Zempol 2014).

In the subfield of digital film production (see Figure 6), the phases of the production process of a cinema film, advertising film or television film are: client order, project development, pre-production, production/rough film making, post-production/film processing, and film exploitation (Blumenberg et al. 1996; Steiff 2005; Wulff & Bender 2003; Flückiger 2008; and websites for film production and film companies such as filmlexikon.uni-kiel.de and www.trilight-visions.de/leistungen/produktions-abschnitte.html).

3.2        Common Basic Vocational Training Model for the Multimedia Design Profession

Comprehensive training, combining product-oriented and work-process-oriented training, can enable workers to take flexible working positions, thereby increasing their career opportunities in an increasingly competitive future social context. The common basic vocational training model for the multimedia design profession that we have created is based on commonalities noted in the work phases of the three multimedia design subfields. These include working with clients, capturing client goals, analyzing clients’ specifications, determining the target group, presenting to clients, sketching the illustration on paper, and processing design elements such as typography, images, graphics and logos. The comprehensive multimedia design training model that we propose is conducted over a 3-year training period, as discussed below.

1st year of training

At the beginning of their training, learners should acquire basic specialist knowledge and skills, consisting of sketching illustrations and designing typography, graphics and images using computer software (see Table 1).

Table 1: Arrangement of modules for the 1st year of training (Nguyen 2019, 192)

2nd year of training

In their second year of training, learners can begin to learn how to work with clients (see Table 2). They should understand all of the work requirements mentioned in the client order and be able to determine target audiences for their outputs (module 6). They should also be able to plan and implement a media project (module 7) and to develop ideas for a design and present them to clients. However, this latter work requirement is a little different in graphic or web design from that of making a film. In graphic design and web design, ideas are presented within a design concept (module 8a + b), whereas in digital film production, they are integrated into the script and storyboard (module 8c). Likewise, learners in the subfields of graphic design and web design integrate all media elements into one layout, consisting of the files of typography, graphics, images and existing logos (module 9a + b), while learners in the field of digital film production make a film based on the storyboard and then convert it from analog to digital format (module 9c).

Table 2: Arrangement of modules for the 2nd year of training (Nguyen 2019, 192)

3rd year of training

In the third year of training, learning content is divided by subfield, and learners take specialized modules that develop and deepen their professional skills in their subfields. In their first set of modules, learners in the subfield of graphic print design work on layout and composition to design a final print media product (module 10a); learners in the subfield of web design work on designing a website (module 10b); and learners in the subfield of digital film production create a rough digital film (module 10c). In their second set of modules, learners in the subfield of graphic print design gain specialist knowledge and initial experience in creating a logo that takes into account corporate design (module 11a); learners in the subfield of web design spend time creating the website that they designed in the previous module (module 11b); and learners in the subfield of digital film production carry out post-production work, consisting of film editing and adding effects to their film (module 11c). In their third set of modules, learners in the subfield of graphic print design use publishing technology and work together with skilled workers to print the final print media product (module 12a); learners in the subfield of web design put their programmed website into operation, test and publish it (module 12b); and learners in the subfield of digital film production add the sound to their film (learning field 12c).

Table3: Arrangement of modules by subfield for the 3rd year of training (Nguyen 2019, 194)

4        Competence Profile of TVET Teachers in the Multimedia Design Field

In considering the applicability of the combined product-oriented and work process-oriented training model to the field of multimedia design, we analyze the competencies required by TVET teachers in this field using the competency framework developed by Diep and Hartmann (2016). Diep and Hartmann’s vocational teacher competency model focuses on six key competence areas (see Figure 7). To be able to implement the new training model effectively, TVET teachers in the field of multimedia design need to have mastered these six competencies through pre-service and/or in-service training.

The ideal training model consists of concurrent training during the pre-service training phase, wherein teachers are taught both professional and pedagogical competencies at the same time. But, in fact, in many countries it is not easy to implement this form of training. Thus, we can instead accept a consecutive training model, which combines pre-service training (occurring at university and developing teachers’ professional expertise) and in-service training (which takes place at an educational center/facility and develops teachers’ pedagogical and general competencies).

Regardless of how training is structured, it needs to equip multimedia design teachers with the following six competencies to enable them to effectively implement the proposed common basic vocational training model:

(1) Professional competencies relate to the fact that teachers in the multimedia design field must have knowledge and skills in using design software (such as Illustrator, Photoshop, 3D Studio Max, web design software, film processing software, etc.) and related machines/devices, as well as knowledge of design principles, aesthetics and concept formulation. Furthermore, in order to create products required by modern markets, multimedia design teachers must have expertise in new technologies relating to their subfield in accordance with real work processes (e.g., new design software, new film processing software, etc). These competencies help teachers to implement work-process-oriented training to teach learners how to create media products. Multimedia design teachers also need non-technical knowledge, such as cultural, social and historical knowledge, to be able to design media products which meet the needs of the society and are culturally valuable. These capacities help teachers train learners to develop design concepts, capture client orders and determine the target audience for their products. These skills involve not only a product, but also a working process relating to that product.

(2) The competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes refers to the fact that a teacher in the field of multimedia design should have industry experience and continuously update their knowledge and skills in line with changes in workplace practices. Following on from that, the teacher should have the skills to develop training programs/syllabi and design lessons in accordance with current work processes and professional practices. After all, the multimedia design field relates to a work process with many phases in the development of a media product. Products trends change quickly, and the technologies needed to make media products also change rapidly. Thus, multimedia design teachers need to grasp these changes and adjust their teaching accordingly.

(3) Teaching competence concerns the fact that teachers in the multimedia design field need to have pedagogical knowledge and skills, such as didactics, pedagogical content knowledge in multimedia design, educational psychology, knowledge of curriculum development, and knowledge and skills in teaching technologies. If teachers only have professional skills (such as a mastery of design software) but lack the pedagogical skills needed to design lessons, convey knowledge, organize learning activities, assess learning outcomes and give instructions, then they will be not able to deliver training that helps learners to acquire the necessary professional knowledge and skills. Multimedia design teachers should also be equipped with modern didactics and understand how to implement action-oriented teaching, product-oriented training and work-process-oriented training. These competences are prerequisites for determining appropriate learning objectives, designing appropriate teaching content, and using suitable teaching methods and facilities for the implementation of product-oriented and work-process-oriented training.

(4) Educating competence indicates that teachers in the multimedia design field have the capabilities to teach learners appropriate working attitudes such as care, patience, creativity, respect for the law, collaboration/teamwork, planning, time management, and other soft skills. In the multimedia design profession, a company may encounter legal issues if an employee violates copyright laws. Likewise, in professional practice, workers have to fulfil the many requirements of customers and are often under time pressure due to a high workload. Soft skills help them to execute appropriate strategies to handle work pressures, such as cooperating with each other to fulfil an order or engaging in project planning. TVET teachers need to use appropriate teaching methods to support and develop learners’ complex work-relevant skills, such as conflict resolution and persuasion.

(5) The competence of self-reflection and self-improvement refers to the ability of teachers to regularly reflect on their training needs and continuously update their knowledge and skills in response to changes occurring in the world of work. Lifelong learning is a necessity in the field of multimedia design, because technological change happens quickly and design software is constantly updated, renewed or newly created. Teachers also need to keep up to date on new aesthetic trends, consumer tastes and popular design styles. For this reason, the competence of self-reflection and self-improvement is very important for TVET teachers in the multimedia design field.

(6) Communication and language competence refers to teachers’ ability to present and use language to organize teaching (e.g., transfer specialized knowledge to learners and organize learning activities) and educate learners. Teachers also need good communication skills to develop learners’ soft skills, including communication skills. Recent research shows that there is a significant positive relationship between soft skills and TVET graduate employability (Wan Hanim et al. 2020). 

5        Conclusion and Recommendations

This paper has introduced a new model for vocational training in the multimedia design field and analyzed the skills requirements and professional competence profile of TVET teachers in this field. These results can contribute to the generation of recommendations for improving the training of teachers in the multimedia design profession. The proposed 3-year common basic training model, which combines product-oriented and work process-oriented training, exploits the advantages and reduces the disadvantages of both the product-oriented training model implemented in Vietnam and the work process-oriented training model practiced in Germany. If this model were to be widely applied, it could open up an avenue for comprehensive training in the multimedia design profession.

Based on an analysis of the competencies required by multimedia design vocational teachers to be able to implement the proposed training model, we will now make some recommendations for the training and retraining of TVET teachers in this field.

5.1        Recommendations for developing teachers’ professional and pedagogical competence

• TVET teachers in the multimedia design field should receive pre-service training according to the concurrent model – i.e., training in both professional and pedagogical competencies at the same time. In-service multimedia design teachers who lack pedagogical and general competencies should be provided with in-service training according to the consecutive model. In both cases, attention should be paid to building teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes in all of the six competency groups outlined by Diep and Hartmann (2016).

5.2        Recommendations for in-service teachers and TVET institutions

• Multimedia design teachers should have the opportunity to participate in continuing training and professional development courses organized by their training institutions to regularly update their knowledge and skills in emerging multimedia technologies, such as new versions of design software or image/film processing software or new innovations in design technology. One of the characteristics of the multimedia design profession is that technology is subject to continuous improvement and upgrading. Thus, multimedia design teachers who do not master new technologies will not meet professional requirements.
• Teachers should have the opportunity to participate directly or indirectly in seminars on socio-cultural topics relevant to the multimedia design field to discuss issues and share practices related to aesthetics, emerging design trends and contemporary social perspectives in multimedia design.
• Teachers should receive training and support to build their pedagogical knowledge and skills relating to vocational curriculum development, job analysis, didactics in modern teaching concepts (action-oriented teaching, competency-based teaching, product-oriented training, work-process-oriented training) and active teaching methods. This is an important prerequisite for effective teaching: helping learners to develop their professional action capabilities, to create products according to the work-process and industry standards, and to develop soft skills such as teamwork, conflict resolution, communication, planning and time management.
• Teachers should be “retrained” periodically through professional improvement courses or seminars held at industrial companies in order to grasp and update their knowledge of real work processes in professional practice and to keep up to date with new technologies used in the multimedia design profession. Training institutions should strengthen linkages with businesses/companies and lobby for companies/ industry to participate in apprenticeship training and professional mentoring of “in-school teachers”.

5.3        Recommendations for policy

• Policies and laws should encourage businesses/companies to participate in multimedia design vocational training as well as in the training/re-training of multimedia design teachers. In developing countries in Southeast Asia, as well as in many other regions of the world, the participation of businesses/industry in the vocational training process is still very limited.
• There should be regulations regarding the pedagogical training requirements of multimedia design teachers, because in many training institutions offering multimedia design courses, vocational teachers only have a bachelor’s or master’s degree in Arts or Graphic Design and do not have any pedagogical knowledge and skills.

5.4        Recommendations for further research

• Further research on curriculum development in the multimedia design profession may be beneficial to promote training in this field. Vocational learning materials and training resources should be continuously reviewed and updated. How the specified pedagogical training courses for multimedia design teachers should be organized and how pre-service teachers in this field should be comprehensively trained are also questions for further research.

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Anyone who teaches within a specific technical field must deal with specific knowledge of technology: its functions, its use and the vocational activities deriving from the respective area. However, this alone is not sufficient. Additionally, pedagogical-didactic considerations need to be conducted. Therefore, the question arises: who are the learners and what is the purpose of the educational program? Additionally, the following issues need to be addressed:

−      What is the need of the target groups with respect to the individual learners´ age and corresponding development phase (see Piaget)?

−      How far along is the learner in terms of his/her skills and competence development i.e. is the learner a novice or an expert (Dreyfus/Dreyfus 1980)?

−      Does the educational program address engineering programs in Higher Education or TVET programs that rather focus on work-tasks and work-processes?

Didactics of technology or technical vocational disciplines must recognize the differences in approaches with different prerequisites for the learner or in relation to the objectives, and turn it into a meaningful Concept.

The development of professional competence is shown within the performance and needs of informal or formal Vocational Education and Training. Informal learning is understood as experiential learning that takes place in an unsystematic and coincidental manner, e.g. at work places and in work processes. Here, the development of professional competence depends on specific working situations. Professionalization of TVET is a challenge in different respects.

Central elements of TVET systems, which need to be in line with the specific technical didactic, are the underlying curricula and the didactical approaches. 

But how are curricula supposed to be developed? Curricula are usually based either on simplified scientific knowledge or on coincidentally chosen practical examples. In many countries, the systematic exploration of work in specific fields is seldom conducted. How general and how specific must the curriculum be to meet the demand of the learners and to be an effective instrument? This is one of the main research questions in curriculum development form a standpoint of modern technical didactics. In order to provide a sound answer, it is necessary to analyse, to compare and to classify work tasks and work processes. Additionally, it is important to analyse what competences are relevant to perform the work task efficiently and in a high quality? 

The question: what must be learned regarding the processes and the knowledge derived from an job analysis is discussed in the paper of XUAN TIEN VO from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, Vietnamwhile GOURHAN PIZARDA from Institute of Art, Design & Management,Pakistan discusses how a curriculum must be structured in order to develop the requested competences. 

A precondition for the design of a work-related curriculum is a foundational theoretical knowledge of didactical concepts and approaches. VLADIMIR BLINOV, EKATERINA ESENINA & IGOR SERGEEV from Russia Federal Institute for Development of Education discuss in this respect the concept of “Digital Didactics”. In their understanding, the system of technology and its more or less closed design prearrange the possibility of learning. One of their conclusions is: “Many teachers are already asking about the place of the teacher in the digital world. Perhaps, in this perfect and yet fantastic world they are not needed at all? You can safely answer that you cannot educate a person without the help of a person. The functions of the teacher and the tools of his work will change, but the goal is the same – give new generations all the best we have …”

However, referring to Noam Chomsky and in contrast to other contexts and concepts, “competence” meaning (in scientific TVET discourses) the ability to act self-reliantly in complex work situations as well as act as a member of society and family. Although the technical system is given, there is a need to work with it. In this respect, competence is shown by the performance of the actor. “Competence” means not a pure skill but a disposition to solve complex problems in situations (Rosenstiel & Erpenbeck 2007). The term “competence” can be differentiated from “qualification”, which – among others – refers to certified competences.

In Germany, there are different dimensions of competences defined in vocational curricula, which are distinguished into three field-related dimensions: professional, social and self-competences. Each dimension has its own methodical instruments (KMK 2011, pp. 14). Didactics of Technical Vocational Education and Training should combine formal and informal learning to enhance the quality of Technical Vocational Education and Training systematically e.g. by experiential learning. Collaborative problem solving could be one concept to develop corresponding competences. DANG THI DIEU HIEN & DUONG THI KIM OANH from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education Vietnam develop in their paper a concept of how experiential learning in an institutional and formal context can be achieved through the didactical approach of collaborative problem solving.

In order to initiate and enhance individual competence development, most didactical approaches focus on action-orientation as it is applied in approaches, which are widely known as Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Project-Based Learning (PjBL). The concepts and their valuable contribution to the variety of technical didactics are discussed in the paper of MARGARITA PAVLOVA & CHRISTY SHIMIN CHEN from UNESCO-UNEVOC Centre, at the Hong KongUniversity of Education and in the paper presented by LIU HUAN from China/ Technische Universität Dresden, Germany. Both papers deliver outstanding examples for the fact that Technical Didactic is challenged to choose the best possible method to allow the learner to develop professional competences in a suitable learning environment. There are many questions, which research could clarify through theoretical concepts and by conducting empirical studies: Which methods are therefore most appropriate? MARGARITA PAVLOVA & CHRISTY SHIMIN CHEN address this question by discussing different models of integration of PBL and PjBl in the field of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and introducing the Model of “Problem-Oriented and Project-Organized Learning” (POPOL).

Technical didactics, to be understood in a more comprehensive manner, is a central element of vocational teacher education (VTE) and in consequence for the development of TVET systems. It lays the basis for reflection and ongoing innovation or adaptation of educational objectives, contents, methods, design of learning environments, media, strategies of assessment and evaluation in the field of technical education in general and in TVET systems in particular. 

Thank you to the contributors. We wish you all great reading pleasure!

Martin Hartmann, Mustapha Ramlee, Diep Phuong Chi, Bruri Triyono

CITATION

Dreyfus, H L.; Dreyfus, S. (1980): A five-stage model of mental activities involved in directed skill acquisition. Unpublished report supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFSC), USAF, University of California at Berkley, February 1980.

Erpenbeck, J. & Rosenstiel, Lutz von (Ed.) (2007): Handbuch der Kompetenzmessung. Erkennen, verstehen und bewerten von Kompetenzen in der betrieblichen, pädagogischen und psychologischen Praxis, Stuttgart: Schäfer Poeschel. 

KMK (Secretary of the conference of ministries of culture, Ed.) (2011): Handreichung für die Erarbeitung von Rahmenlehrplänen der Kultusministerkonferenz für den berufsbezogenen Unterricht in der Berufsschule und ihre Abstimmung mit Ausbildungsordnungen des Bundes für anerkannte Ausbildungsberufe, actualized 2017 https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2011/2011_09_23_GEP-Handreichung.pdf, (retrieved 08.01.2019). 

In order to strengthen the TVET quality assurance in the period of ASEAN economic integration which offers the opportunities of labour force mobility in ASEAN countries (ASEAN Secretariat 2015a, b), the Vocational Training Development Strategy of Vietnam for the period 2011-2020 was launched as a relevant policy (VPM 2012). Besides the quantitative objectives in terms of the amount of vocationally trained labourers and in terms of the amount of vocational schools, the strategy contains objectives and measures focusing on TVET quality assurance such as – among others – developing National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS) and establishing a National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF) in accordance with National Qualification Framework (NQF). Furthermore, this article provides information about initial steps in the process of promoting and enacting the TVET quality assurance program, which includes, for instance, determining a common model of quality assurance of vocational training in Vietnam, building Systems of Criteria, Standards for Accreditation of Vocational Institutions (SCSA), enacting the NOSS and developingNVQF which is referring towards ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF) in order to enhance regional mobility of the labour force.

Key words: National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS), National Qualification Framework (NQF), National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF), quality accreditation, System of Criteria and Standards for Accreditation (SCSA), ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF), Regional Qualification Framework (RQF).    

1 Background: The establishment of ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) and its implications on TVET

The establishment of ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in December 2015 aimed to create a single market and production base including the free flows of goods, services (with the free flow of trained labour), investment and capital, which can enhance economic competitiveness, promote the prosperity of the whole region based on equitable economic development, and facilitate the integration of the ASEAN to the global economy (ASEAN Secretariat 2015a, b). The free movement of trained labour (in consideration of relevant domestic regulations and market demand conditions) counts on MRAs (Mutual Recognition Arrangements), which are regarded as one of the policy tools for skilled labour mobility within ASEAN (ASEAN Secretariat 2015b, 33; BMZ 2015, 11). There have been eight conducted MRAs in ASEAN for eight groups of professions: Engineering Services, Nursing Services, Architectural Services, Surveying Qualifications, Medical Practitioners, Dental Practitioners, Accounting Services, Tourism Professionals (ASEAN Secretariat 2015b, 33). It can be noted, that the AEC has just created not only more employment opportunities for workers by facilitating the labour force mobility in ASEAN countries, but also more challenges for the TVET systems by demanding the harmonization and the standardization towards the mutual recognition of qualification to help citizens of ASEAN countries to find jobs outside their own country. In this background, TVET in ASEAN must encounter some significant problems including “ (a) human resources development and capacity building, (b) recognition of professional qualifications, and (c) integrating industries across the region to promote regional sourcing” (Paryono 2013c, 2).

In order to address these problems, some common strategies can be identified through the various debates in the field of TVET in ASEAN (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2012, 6-11; Witaya 2013a, 2-4; Paryono 2013b; Paryono 2013c, 3-6 ; Sharifudin 2014, BMZ 2015, Vu X.H. 2016):

1. Professional development of TVET teachers: This trend emphasizes the significance of vocational teacher education (VTE) in enhancing the efficiency of TVET (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2012, 6-11; Witaya 2013a, 2-4; Sharifudin 2014; BMZ 2015, 11; Vu X.H. 2016).
2. Practice of TVET quality assurance, TVET accreditation systems: This trend requires all countries in ASEAN to ensure TVET quality to develop highly qualified human resources taking part in the free flow of services within ASEAN countries after the establishment of AEC (Paryono 2013b, c, 3-6; Sharifudin 2014; Vu X.H. 2016).
3. Synchronization of qualification frameworks: Aiming towards the mutual recognition of qualifications, the countries in ASEAN need a synchronic qualification framework as the means of mutual reference promoting the transparent mechanism. In accordance with this strategy, the National Qualification Framework (NQF), the Regional Qualification Framework (RQF) and the ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF) have been developed and applied in many countries as well as throughout the region. It can be considered a system change towards harmonization and standardization. (Witaya 2013a, 2-4; Paryono 2013c, 3-5; Vu X.H. 2016)
4. Curriculum change, transferable skills, life-long learning: This issue underlines the relevance of curricular change, which should be in line with the requirements of the real working world (Witaya 2013a, 2-4; Paryono 2013c, 5) and integrate transferable skills including employability skills, “life skills”, technical or discipline – specific skills, core skills, attitudes and values, green skills, hot skills etc. (Brennan Kemmis; Hodge; Bowden 2014, 1; Paryono 2014, 1-5; Sharifudin 2014; BMZ 2015, 11). The curriculum and other factors of TVET should offer the flexibility for vocational learners to help them pursue the long-life learning.
5. Articulations: This issue refers to the articulation among educational institutions, which can be done horizontally or vertically. Horizontal articulation describes the mutual recognition between institutions at the same training level. Vertical articulation describes the possibility of transferring from the lower education level to the next education level (Paryono 2013c, 3-5).
6. Labour mobility, graduate employability, career guidance and job information: This issue concerns the provision of career guidance and job information at the national, regional, even international levels and the enhancement of comparability and transparency on TVET (Paryono 2013c, 3-6; Sharifudin 2014; BMZ 2015, 10-11).
7. Collaboration with industrial sectors: This collaboration enables TVET to meet the requirements of the labour market and helps TVET to enhance its practicality (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2012, 6-9; BMZ 2015, 11; Sharifudin 2014; Vu X.H. 2016).
8. Good governance, TVET policy reform and the networking within the region: This issue stresses the role of management reform to remedy the fundamental structural deficits and strengthen the legal and financial basis of TVET system, as well as to consolidate the networking of TVET within the region (Witaya 2013a, 2-4; Sharifudin 2014; BMZ 2015, 10; Vu X.H. 2016).
9. Extension of knowledge sharing and dialogues, expanding access and equity: This issue relates to the open access to quality TVET for all countries, regardless of their background (Paryono 2013c, 6; Sharifudin 2014).
10. Research and development: This issue refers to the importance of the research anddevelopment activities and the possibility of sharing research findings through conferences, platforms, publications and online research database in the field of TVET (Paryono 2013c, 6).

In this background, the countries in ASEAN must review their policies to meet the required trends of TVET in the period of ASEAN economic integration. The development and publication of quality assurance mechanisms in the field of TVET as the basis of mutual recognition between the countries also become significant. Taking into account these initiatives, with respect to enhancing AEC, Vietnam has initiated substantial policies and carried out some initial steps to promote the quality assurance in the field of TVET in accordance with the mentioned common trends of TVET ASEAN.

2 The Vocational Training Development Strategy of Vietnam 2011- 2020 in the light of ASEAN economic integration

According to the forecast, workforce in Vietnam will reach nearly 63 million people by 2020, 35-38% of which work in the field of agriculture, 31% of which work in the field of industry and construction, and 27-29% of which work in the field of service (MoLISA 2012). By 2020, Vietnam wants to move towards a basically industrialized and modernized country, and one of the main means for that is the development of human resources based on high quality vocational education. On the basis of the Human Resources Development Strategy for the period 2011-2020 (VPM 2011a) and the Planning of Vietnam Human Resources Development for the period 2011-2020 (VPM 2011b), the Vietnamese Government designated Vietnam Ministry of Labour, Invalid and Social Affairs (MoLISA) and Vietnam General Directorate of Vocational Training (GDVT) to build the Vocational Training Development Strategy of Vietnam for the period 2011-2020 (VPM 2012). That is part of the principle of “radical and comprehensive educational renovation” in Vietnam for this period.

The overall objectives of this strategy (VPM 2012) focus on meeting the labour market’s demand regarding vocational training by 2020 in term of quantity, quality, vocational structures and qualification, forming the force of skilled labour which contributes to improving the national competitiveness, widespread implementation of vocational training for the labour, restructuring the labour force, raising the income of the poor in a sustainable manner and ensuring social security. In order to accomplish these overall objectives, a series of concrete quantitative objectives (VPM 2012) was determined:

• In terms of the amount of vocationally trained labour: By 2020, the percentage of vocationally trained labour will have reached 55%, which is equivalent to 34.4 million people.
• In terms of the amount of vocational schools: By 2020, the number of vocational colleges will have reached 230 (80 non-public colleges) including 40 high quality colleges (10-12 international standard colleges), the number of intermediate vocational schools will have reached 310 (210 of which are non-public) and the number of vocational training centres will have reached 1,050 (in which there will be 350 non-public centres) including 150 key centres.
• In terms of quality assurance: 
  By 2020, the training of all key occupations at national, regional and international levels, the training in all high quality vocational schools and in all key vocational training centres must be controlled by national quality accreditation. By 2020, three national centres of vocational training accreditation will be established. Some private centres of vocational training accreditation also will be built in this period. By 2020, 400 sets of National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS) including 150 sets for national key occupations will be issued. (VPM 2012)

Also in this strategy, a series of measures, especially measures relating to quality assurance was adopted by the Vietnam state government (VPM 2012):

(1) Renovating the governmental management for vocational training: This measure is held as one of two key measures to enhance quality of vocational training because the steering of government plays a decisive role at macro level in all fields including the field of vocation training. By 2020, the system of regulations and rules regarding vocational training must be modified in the direction of completing and improving the policies on vocational training, e.g.: restructuring management sectors to ensure the effective controlling of government; allowing vocational schools to become independent units with autonomy, in which the leaders must be responsible for training results as well as for operating situations of vocational schools and must be trained about management skills; etc.

(2) Developing the vocational teacher staff and managers in the field of vocational education: This measure is supposed to be the second key measure to enhance the quality of vocational training. It deals with training and retraining vocational teachers in compliance with principles of ensuring quantity and quality, having logical structures in terms of occupations and training levels. This measure also emphasizes the reorganization of educational institutions, which are responsible for vocational teacher education (VTE), e.g. revising the operation of technical pedagogical universities, establishing pedagogical faculties in vocational colleges to enhance pedagogical skills for vocational teachers in these colleges. Furthermore, the building of a professional management force in the field of vocational education is also taken into account with concrete solutions such as: developing the curriculum for training managers in the field of vocational education, organizing coaching courses with respect to management skills for managers etc.

(3) Building a National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF): This measure is regarded as an important measure to ensure the quality of vocational training. It involves building NVQF in accordance with Vietnam’s National Qualification Framework (NQF), enacting National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS) for popular occupations, transferring sets of NOSS to training of regional and international “key occupations”, building frameworks of training programs.

(4) Developing the curriculum, syllabus and learning materials: In terms of training of national key occupations, the curriculum, syllabus and learning materials must be developed and governmentally enacted based on NOSS; in terms of training of regional and international key occupations, the curriculum, syllabus and learning materials are designed based on programs from developed countries in Asia and elsewhere in accordance with the Vietnamese situation. In terms of training of other occupations, the curriculum, syllabus and learning materials can be developed by vocational schools based on frameworks of training programs and NOSS.

(5) Developing the facilities and equipment in the field of vocational education: In terms of training of national key occupations, the standards of necessary facilities and equipment must be governmentally determined and enacted. In terms of training of regional and international key occupations, the standards of facilities as well as the necessary equipment categories are built based on experiences of developed countries in Asia and throughout the world. In terms of training of other occupations, the standards of facilities must be defined so that at least they can meet the requirement of training at a minimum level.

(6) Controlling and ensuring the quality of vocational training: In order to establish a quality assurance mechanism, in this strategy, some concrete urgent measures were assigned. They encompass:

• establishing Vietnam Vocational Training Accreditation Agency (VVTAA), establishing three National Centers of Vocational Training Accreditation in three main regions of Vietnam (northern, central and south of Vietnam) and developing some non-public centers of vocational training accreditation in order to accredit vocational institutions for their training quality and to test the current programs;
• admitting the independence and autonomy of vocational training institutions: Accordingly, each vocational training institution must be responsible for the quality of its vocational training, for the standardization of “learning input” and “learning output”, in other words, the vocational training institutions must themselves ensure the training quality, however, they must be guided by the National Agencies of Vocational Training Accreditation requirements;
• developing some centers of vocational skills assessment and establishing some centers of vocational teachers’ occupational skills assessment;
• developing a national “bank of examination questions” and organizing the national vocational examinations to accredit the vocational learners for their qualification.

7) Linking vocational training with labour markets, developing the participation of enterprises in the field of TVET: In order to increase the labour market relevance of TVET qualification, some concrete measures were found:

• Vocational training institutions should collect information from graduate vocational learners about their occupational situations and their opinions relating to improving the training programs. Besides that, the vocational training institutions also should frequently gather information from enterprises about their needs and requirements in respect to labour force as well as their feedback regarding graduates from vocational training institutions as a basis to modify training strategies and to improve the current training programs.
• The enterprises should have the main responsibility to ensure occupational skills of employees in their businesses: self-organizing of training and retraining for their workers, cooperating with vocational training institutions for training, placing orders for trained workforce with vocational training institutions. The enterprises should participate directly in vocational training activities: building standards of vocational skills, identification of job categories, development of curriculum, assessment of learning outcomes of vocational learners etc. The enterprises should frequently provide information on employment needs (e.g. number of workers to be recruited, requirements regarding qualification, skills, competencies for recruiting), the advantages for employees (e.g. working environment, salary, insurance etc.), as well as the feedback on their satisfaction with training quality to vocational training institutions.

In reality, according to MoLISA, in 2009, some 40% of vocational institutions were managed by private enterprises in Vietnam (Specht; Aipperspach 2009). These enterprises are willing to undertake their responsibilities regarding TVET, but they require (1) more concrete legal regulations to prevent the graduates from quitting their jobs after being trained by the enterprises, (2) their autonomy in developing the curriculum and the extension, (3) the extension of practical training time (Specht; Aipperspach 2009, 24-25).

(8) Raising the awareness of vocational training development: This promotes activities regarding consulting and vocational guidance in high schools. In addition, enhancing the perception of all social organizations including management agencies about the role and the position of vocational training in national human resource development is regarded as crucial.

(9) Promoting the international cooperation in the field of vocational training: Expanding the international cooperation in the field of vocational training is very necessary, especially in the period of economic integration. According to this strategy, Vietnam wants to cooperate with strategic partners, which are successful countries in the field of vocational training. In particular, Vietnam supports the cooperation between ASEAN countries to move towards the mutual recognition of qualifications. Vietnam also wants to offer the opportunities of international cooperation regarding scientific research in the field of TVET, in application of scientific achievements and advanced technologies to improve the quality of vocational training. The cooperation between domestic vocational training institutions and partners abroad is encouraged. Vietnam commits itself to creating the favorable legal framework to attract investors, foreign businesses to develop high quality vocational training institutions in Vietnam and to cooperate in vocational training in Vietnam (VPM 2011a, 8; VPM 2012, 6).

3 Initial achievements of Vietnam in the process of promoting the quality assurance of TVET qualification in the period of integration

3.1 Developing the National Qualification Framework (NQF)

Perceiving the importance of building the instruments facilitating the mutual recognition of qualifications, MoET and MoLISA are implementing a project of building the Vietnam National Qualification Framework (NQF) based on the reference to the ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF) and the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) as well as NQF of other countries such as Australia, New Zealand etc. with regard to the Vietnamese context. The draft of Vietnam NQF basically shows eight levels (from low to high) belonging to two groups, which can be illustrated by the following table:

Table 1:            The draft of Vietnam National Qualification Framework (author’s own presentation based on GDVT 2015; MoET 2016, Saigon Online 2015)”

The draft of Vietnam NQF also contains the content regarding the learning-outcome standards of each level (in terms of knowledge, skills, autonomous competence and responsibility). This draft will be completed, modified and submitted for the governmental approval as soon as possible to be officially promulgated (GDVT 2015; MoET 2016).

3.2 Instruments to ensure quality of vocational training as national proper guidelines

3.2.1 The common model of quality assurance of vocational training in Vietnam

MoLISA and GDVT have been directing subordinate units to build and consolidate the quality assurance systems inside and outside of vocational training institutions in accordance with a definite general model. According to Pham Vu Quoc Binh (Pham 2015), who is the director of the Vietnam Vocational Training Accreditation Agency, the present model of quality assurance of vocational training in Vietnam encompasses the following three main components: self-assessment, internal assessment and external assessment. The combination of these three components helps ensure the training qualityefficiently.

Self-assessment concerns the quality assessment at institution level. In a vocational training institution, there are many factors affecting the training quality such as curricula, learning materials, qualification and quantity of vocational teachers and management staff, facilities (including buildings, classrooms, tools, equipment, machines etc.), management activities, the compliance with national guidelines etc. In order to ensure training quality, all of these factors must operate coherently with high standards, e.g., the vocational teachers must be competent enough to use the necessary modern machines, the curricula and learning materials must be appropriate for training in line with occupational skill standards, the facilities must meet the requirements of teaching, or the teaching methods must be appropriate for characteristics of vocational learners, features of occupation to be taught as well as the existing facilities. Thus, a “base management system” is essential to keep the coherence of these factors. The vocational training institutions in Vietnam were, therefore, encouraged to apply ISO 9001-2008 (Pham 2015). “The ISO standards refer fundamentally to the consistency and systematization of the processes. They constitute a method to standardize the organization activities and to offer reliability to customers over the expected quality of products and services” (UNESCO – UNEVOC 2016). On this basis, ISO standards as the general external  assessment instrument combined with self-assessment will help the vocational training institutions in keeping their activities (from administrative work, training activities, financial activities to coordination with businesses and monitoring of vocational learners) in balance and in good quality. A vocational institution needs to build, apply and frequently modify the assessment standards of quality, control the input, the output and the process of training.

Internal assessment involves the quality assessment implemented by national vocational training accreditation agencies including Vietnam Vocational Training Accreditation Agency (VVTAA) and three other national centers of vocational training accreditation (expected to be established by 2020). These agencies use the criteria and process of accreditation enacted by MoLISA to implement the accreditation activities to help vocational training institutions in improving their training quality as well as to improve policy review (MoLISA 2008a, b, 2010).

External assessment refers to the quality assessment conducted by non-national or independent agencies with their own accreditation criteria, which are independent of national criteria. The private centers of vocational training accreditation, employers, and enterprises can be involved in this assessment.

Basically, internal assessment and external assessment are mutually independent procedures, they only have mutual functions in helping the vocational institutions control their training quality to improve and ensure their training quality.

Figure 1: Model of quality assurance in the field of vocational training in Vietnam

3.2.2 Approval of Systems of Criteria, Standards for Accreditation (SCSA) of Vocational Institutions

Based on the review of international processes and practices, systems of criteria, standards for accreditation (SCSA) of Vocational Institutions were adopted. The national accreditation agencies (internal assessment) use these SCSA to carry out their accreditation activities of the vocational institutions. In Vietnam, the vocational institutions are categorized into three levels so far: (1) vocational training centers, (2) intermediate vocational schools, (3) colleges. Therefore, SCSA for vocational institutions in Vietnam is also categorized into three kinds corresponding to three levels of vocational institution (MoLISA 2008 a, b, 2010). However, all of these three kinds of SCSA are based on the same framework including:

1. Criteria are necessary contents and requirements which the vocational training institutions must fulfil to achieve the goals. Criteria encompass a series of concrete standards.
2. Standards describe the extent of requirements and concrete conditions of a criterion. Each criterion is assessed based on these standards. A standard comprises a series of indicators.
3. Indicators define requirements and conditions of concrete aspects of a standard.

The three forms of SCSA for the three levels of vocational institutions have the same framework / criteria system, which consist of the nine criteria shown in Table 2: Each criterion is assessed through a certain score. The score of each criterion is designed based on characteristics of the level of vocational institution. The maximum score that an institution can obtain is 100. The standards and indicators in each SCSA correspond to characteristics of each level of vocational institutions. This can be illustrated by showing the SCSA of intermediate vocational schools:

Table 2:            System of criteria, standards for accreditation (SCSA) of Intermediate Vocational Schools in Vietnam (author’s own presentation based on MoLISA 2008a)

The result of the accreditation of a vocational institution is basically classified into three levels:

Level 1: Where an institution has assessment score less than 50, or has a total score more than 50 but the score of one of the nine criteria is less than 50% of maximum score of this criterion. This level means that an institution does not pass the assessment.

Level 2: Institution has assessment score from 50 to 80, and has no criterion with a score less than 50% of maximum score of that criterion. If an institution has a total score of more than 80 with no criterion having score less than 50% of maximum score of that criterion, but has one of criteria No.4 (Teachers and Management Staff), No.5 (Curriculum and Teaching & Learning materials), No.7 (Facilities, equipment, teaching instruments) with score less than 80% of maximum score of that criterion, then this institution is also ranked level 2. This level means that an institution has a satisfactory quality, but needs to improve its quality continuously.

Level 3: Institution has total score of more than 80, has no criterion with a score less than 50% of maximum score of that criterion, and all of criteria No.4 (Teachers and Management Staff), No.5 (Curriculum and Teaching & Learning materials), No.7 (Facilities, equipment, teaching instruments) with score of more than 80% of maximum score of each criterion. This level means that an institution has good quality.

3.2.3 Approval of National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS)

According to the Vietnam Ministry of Information and Communication (MIC), about 122 sets of NOSS for 122 key occupations relating to the fields of industry, agriculture, construction and transport in Vietnam were officially enacted by the ministries related to the specific occupations in cooperation with GDVT, VVTAA and other departments (MoIT 2011, MoARD 2012, MoC 2010, 2011a, b, MT 2011).

The other sets of NOSS of other various occupations are being continuously issued in order to reach 400 sets NOSS issued by 2020, as mentioned in “Vocational Training Development Strategy of Vietnam for the period 2011-2020”. These NOSS are built based on results of Job Analysis and consultation with experts. According to Decree No. 31 / NĐ-CP dated 24.3.2015 approved by Vietnam Prime Minister (VPM 2015), the existing 122 NOSS will be reviewed and improved by MoLISA to become appropriate for changes in technology.

3.3 The concrete steps of Vietnam to facilitate the mutual recognition of qualifications in ASEAN

Vietnam has also participated in a Working Group building the ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF) since 2012, with representatives of three Ministries (MoET, MoLISA, and MoIT). AQRF was approved by ASEAN Economic Ministers in August 2014; then the ASEAN Ministers of Education approved in September 2014. Finally, AQRF was adopted by ASEAN Labour Ministers in May 2015. In the upcoming time, Vietnam’s representatives will continue to participate in the Working Group to discuss the process of reference and the governance of AQRF (GDVT 2015).

Previously, in 2010, Vietnam participated in pilot projects on evaluation of mutual recognition of qualifications for Job Welding and Job Automotive Technology in the Mekong Delta subregion that used the model of regional standards of qualification developed for the Asia-Pacific region by the International Labour Organization (ILO). In the future, in this sub-region, the mutual recognition of vocational skills will be implemented for some occupations such as tourist trades, services, welding, automotive technology etc. (GDVT 2015).

In terms of certification, Vietnam Government issued Decree No. 31 / NĐ-CP dated 24.3.2015 providing guidance on the evaluation and certification of national vocational skills (VPM 2015). Accordingly, MoLISA is responsible for the management of international cooperation in the field of evaluation, certification of national vocational skills, for building sets of NOSS (as the basis for certification) in the direction of enhancing compatibility with ASEAN standards and international standards. The existing NOSS will be reviewed and updated in line with the changes of technology and labour market (VPM 2015). In terms of curriculum, MoLISA has been focusing on curriculum development, building a list of vocational training equipment and implementing pilot training schemes for some key occupations at ASEAN level and international level based on curriculums from countries with high quality TVET. The issuing of “learning outcome standards” for each occupation, for each level of training in accordance with NQF is prioritized. The curriculums of all key occupations must be developed based on these “learning outcome standards”. MoLISA enacted 96 national curriculums of intermediate level and college level for 96 key occupations of national level. Besides that, MoLISA has been transferring 70 curriculums of 70 key occupations of international level: eight curriculums with international standards were transferred from Malaysia in 2012, 12 curriculums with international standards were transferred from Australia in 2015, and 50 curriculums are being transferred continuously until 2020 (DoV.G. 2015). The pilot training based on transferred curriculums with international standards is appreciating: up to the present, there has been pilot training for 2,750 vocational students (at college training level) in 34 key occupations of international level; From 2016-2020, there will be the pilot training for 2,000 vocational students (at college training level) with international curriculums transferred in the period 2016-2020 (Do V.G. 2015).

Improving English language skills and Computer skills for vocational learners is also regarded as one of the more important solutions to facilitate the ASEAN integration in the field of TVET. MoLISA is developing 25 specialized English programs for key occupations of national, regional and international levels. In the near future, MoLISA will implement a pilot program checking English skills and basic computer skills of 150,000 vocational learners of intermediate vocational schools and colleges in three years, especially the high quality vocational institutions (Do V.G. 2015, GDVT 2015).

4 International cooperation to learn from international experience regarding quality assurance in the field of TVET

In June 2015, VVTAA and German Organization for International Development (GIZ) signed an agreement with regard to embedding instruments of quality management in the framework of cooperation program between Germany and Vietnam (Vietnamese German “Programme Reform of TVET in Viet Nam”) into Vietnam’s system of quality assurance in the field of TVET (TVET Vietnam Organization 2015). According to this engagement, three instruments of quality management based on German experience are piloted in eight selected vocational institutions in Vietnam, prior to wider adoption by many vocational institutions in the TVET system in Vietnam. These three instruments are: tracer study, enterprise survey, workshop management.

“Tracer study” involves collecting the feedback of TVET graduates about their workplaces and relevance of the previous training.

“Enterprise survey” provides information on feedback of employers about the graduates’ competencies in terms of occupational knowledge, skills and attitudes in comparison with requirements of the workplace, therefore, it is regarded as an external feedback for vocational institutions to review and improve TVET training quality to meet the needs and requirements of labour markets.

“Workshop management” provides fundamental knowledge and skills of implementing management methods in TVET institutions such as Lean Workshop Management, Implementing 5S-Workshop Management Model, Establishment of the 3-Layers Management Concept. The methods provided by the “workshop management” instrument are very useful for vocational institutes to keep the operation in TVET workshops effective and optimal, and thereby ensuring training quality. For example, 5S-Workshop Management model (Sort – Straighten – Shine – Standardize – Sustain) refers to principle of maintaining 5 actions in a workshop: sort (remove unnecessary items, prevent accumulation of unnecessary items), straighten (arrange the necessary items so that they can be easily selected for use), shine (keep workplace, equipment and machines clean, safe, tidy), standardize (maintain high standards at workplace at all times), sustain (keep 5S as discipline); 3-Layers Management Concept refers to a model of TVET workshop with three levels (TVET Vietnam Organization 2012, 2015; IBC Berufliche Bildung und Consulting GmbH 2010; Bui et al. 2014; Pahl 2005, 234-240):

• Workshop level 1 is equipped in accordance with teaching method “4 steps“ (basically, teacher performs the occupational skills and shows how to do, pupils imitate with appropriate equipment to apply knowledge on practice to train the vocational skills);
• Workshop level 2 is well equipped in accordance with teaching methods “6 steps“ such as guiding text method or project method (basically, pupils implement “full actions“ from collecting information, planning, decision, carrying out, to controlling and evaluation independently to make learning products as “almost real products“, the role of teacher is helping pupils through consulting, discussing, providing materials);
• Workshop level 3is equipped well enough to implement “real projects“ in the workshop to produce real products for enterprises or for research projects.

On this basis, the 3-Layer Workshop Management Model promotes the cooperation between TVET schools and enterprises, closes the gaps between theory and practice and contributes to ensure the training quality in the field of TVET.

Also in the framework of the Vietnamese-German “Programme Reform of Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Viet Nam”, in January 2016, Vietnam General Directorate of Vocational Training (GDVT) in collaboration with GIZ organized the workshop “Pilot cooperative training models – experiences and way ahead”. This workshop showed concrete models and concrete recommendations for the cooperation between vocational institutions and enterprises as an effective form to ensure quality in the field of VET (TVET Vietnam Organization 2016).

In addition, Vietnam appreciated the cooperation with other countries having high quality TVET such as Australia, Korea, Malaysia etc. in sharing experiences in regard to TVET quality assurance, vocational teacher education (VTE) as well as transferring the curricula with regional and international standards (as mentioned above). Especially, in the period 2012 – 2013, the project “Improving capacity to establish a system of assessment and certification of national vocational skills in Vietnam” with funding from South Korean reaching 1,500,000 USD, was implemented (MoLISA 2012; MoPICD 2012).

5 Concluding remarks

This article presents the important policies and initial steps of Vietnam in promoting quality assurance in the field of TVET. However, to promote the quality assurance in the field of TVET at a regional level, it should be emphasized that the stronger cooperation between countries in Asia, especially in ASEAN is very significant.

• ASEAN countries should continue developing the ASEAN Regional Qualification Framework (RQF) in TVET as a tool for ASEAN countries to benchmark their training qualification against the common criteria. Since 1998 ASEAN RQF has been supported and initially developed by the ASEAN Secretariat, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Bangkok, UNESCO Bangkok, and SEAMEO. Some countries implemented the pilot testing of RQF in certain occupations, and an outline of ASEAN RQF in TVET is accepted by five SEA countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) (Paryono 2013a, 6; Dang 2011). In the future, the Regional Association for Vocational Teacher education (RAVTE) could promote the establishing of ASEAN RQF by helping the countries in ASEAN in piloting the outline of RQF in certain professions. After that, RAVTE could organize conferences to collect the feedbacks of the pilot testing from all countries in ASEAN to come to conclusions, how this outline of RQF should be modified and how the “final” RQF should be. Through the large pilot testing, the RQF can be modified, completed and adopted by all ASEAN countries.
• Besides developing RQF, in a parallel manner, the ASEAN countries should develop the regional standard vocational institutions (RSVI), which are accredited by external assessment organizations, i.e. international Vocational Training Accreditation Agencies/Centres. It can help these countries in exemplary execution of RQF.
• Before the RQF can and should be completed and accepted by all countries in ASEAN, the ASEAN countries should exploit the ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF), which was completely adopted by ASEAN Labour Ministers in May, 2015 to consolidate their TVET systems towards the standardization with consideration of advantages and difficulties in the process of implementation of this AQRF. The RAVTE should organize some regional meetings as the forums where the ASEAN countries can share their experiences in applying AQRF as well as in building RSVI.
• Moreover, there are still barriers regarding the mutual understanding between sending countries and receiving countries in labour mobility, therefore, “it requires strong and long-lasting commitment by the participating countries and entails strong collaborations within and across Ministries, and other stakeholders in the participating countries” (Paryono 2010, 2013a, 7). Furthermore, to come to a common understanding between Asia-Pacific countries, the “development of National Quality Frameworks (NQF) as a conversion system for education and labour mobility between sending and receiving countries” (Witaya 2013b) also should be seriously taken into account by all countries within the Asia-Pacific region.
• The promoting of building sets of ASEAN Regional Occupational Skill Standards (ROSS), the development of Regional TVET Quality Assurance Framework (RQAF) as well as of Vocational Training Accreditation Agencies/Centres at regional and international levels should be also regarded as some useful solutions for quality assurance in the field of TVET.

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Citation

Diep, P. C. (2016). Substantial policies and measures to promote quality assurance of TVET in Vietnam towards mutual recognition in ASEAN. In: TVET@Asia, issue 7, 1-21. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue7/diep_tvet7.pdf (retrieved 2.8.2016).

The reform of TVET systems all over the world as well as in Asia is an essential request in a time of fast-change and sustainable development. Securing quality in vocational teacher education plays an important role in achieving the supply of adequately skilled workers in this context. To make sure that vocational teachers have the necessary competencies to fulfil the requirement in the new era and to facilitate the process of vocational teacher education, the professional profile of vocational teaching profession needs to be reviewed and consolidated. On the basis of literature review and considering features of “the greening of technical and vocational education and training”, we propose a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the context of sustainable development. This model represents a system of essential competencies within their cross – influences, based on necessary knowledge, which vocational teachers should acquire or continue to develop throughout their whole careers not only to meet the requirements of profession in fast – change world, but also to contribute to building ecologically sound economies. The model presented in graphical form helping users to capture quickly its key features was established to support the professional development of vocational teaching staff based on clearly defined competencies in accordance with tendency of sustainable development.

Keywords: sustainable development, green skills, VTE, vocational teacher education, pedagogical competence, didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, professional expertise, educating competence, self-reflection competence, dual system

1 The relevance of a model of pedagogical competence for greening TVET

Climate change has had a significant impact on human lives all over the world with many severe consequences such as melting ice, rising sea levels, heat waves, an increase of the number, duration and intensity of tropical storms and droughts, alarming global warming etc. Locating in regions regarded as the workbench of the world, many countries in East and Southeast Asia are suffering from social, economical, and ecological problems caused by climate change. Vietnam is one of the countries, which suffers most from natural catastrophes and climate change. Vietnam Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX Vietnam 2015) shows that Vietnam is suffering from six to seven tropical storms every year on average as a results of climate change; from 1990 to 2010, there were 74 floods in the river systems of Vietnam; severe drought, salinization, landslides, and other natural disasters have been hindering the development of Vietnam (MoRE & UNDP 2015). According to statistics, in the last 50 years, the average annual temperature of Vietnam has increased about 0.5 to 0.7 degrees Celsius. Also over this period, the sea level in Vietnam rose 20 cm. Annually, the damage caused by natural disasters in Vietnam is equivalent to 1.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) (MoRE & DoWRM 2015). Vietnam government has launched some relevant strategies to support green growth, such as becoming the first country in the world releasing a special report (SREX Vietnam 2015) based on framework SREX (Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2012 a,b), establishing Vietnam Panel on Climate Change (VPCC), which includes many leading scientists in field of environmental science in Vietnam, who will give advices on policies and scientific basis to government to gradually enhance climate change adaptation and to build ecologically solid economy. Green economy also requires a highly skilled workforce supplied by high quality vocational education and training system in accordance with tendency of sustainable development. The quality of vocational teacher affects the achievement of vocational learners directly. Therefore, it is important to build a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher in the world of sustainable development to contribute to building sustainable vocational education and training system not only for Vietnam, but also for other countries in East and Southeast Asia as well as in other regions in the world.

The proposal for a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers aims to:

• provide an instrument to reflect the quality of professional performance of vocational teachers, the quality of vocational teacher education, even the quality of engineer education and training on the basis of a common understanding of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers, especially in era of sustainable development.
• contribute to shaping the initial and in-service vocational teacher education, particularly in setting the objectives of vocational teacher education and training.
• promote the establishment and improvement of policies in terms of technical and vocational education and training (TVET), in particular the policies facilitating the initial establishment and development of TVET dual systems in vocational education and training, as well as the greening of vocational education.
• suggest a tool to vocational teachers to self-evaluate, to control and enhance their competencies as well as to set their professional goals in a rapidly changing world, in which the sustainable development is vital and urgently required.
• contribute a theoretical foundation for further discussions in the field of TVET and to provide a basis which can support the establishment of standards for vocational teacher as well as standards for the vocational teacher education (VTE) in new era.
• consolidating the profile of vocational teaching profession in accordance with the requirement of a sustainable development.

2 The international discussion on competence models in VTE

Through the literature analysis, we considered some theoretical foundations providing the useful knowledge on competencies of teacher in general and of vocational teacher specifically.

Košinár cited the idea of Frey that competences are always solid due to broad knowledge, which is classified by Kunter and other German authors into professional declarative and procedural knowledge (Košinár 2014, 31; Frey 2006, 163; Kunter et al. 2011, 14). Declarative knowledge as mentally propositional represented understanding can be described by semantic networks. Someone is aware of the knowledge and can verbalize it. Procedural knowledge is embodied knowledge: how to do something successfully. Terhart added action routines and forms of reflection to this competence domain, competence of teacher therefore relies on “scientifically sound knowledge, situationally flexible applicable routines, and on specially professional ethics representing the action-guiding standards of value” (Terhart 2000, 55; Košinár 2014, 32; Carle 2002,10). Before that, the famous American educator Shulman classified knowledge of teaching profession into five main dimensions: (1) general pedagogical knowledge relating to broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organization, (2) subject-matter content knowledge, (3) pedagogical content knowledge, (4) curricular knowledge, (5) other knowledge with reference to knowledge of educational context, knowledge of learners and their characteristics, knowledge of educational purposes, values and their philosophical, historical grounds (Shulman 1986, 1987; Košinár 2014, 32-33). Other authors added consulting knowledge as the sixth dimension into this classification (Kunter et al. 2011, 29; Košinár 2014, 33).

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (a nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1987 in the United State, dedicated to promoting excellence in education) pointed out that professional competence of teacher should comprise:

• “specific declarative and procedural knowledge (competence in the narrower sense: knowledge and skills);
• professional values, beliefs, subjective theories, normative preferences and objectives;
• motivational orientations and metacognitive abilities and skills of professional self-regulation”

(NBPTS 2002, cited by Baumert & Kunter 2006, 481; Hopf 2012, 19)

Baumert, Kunter and their colleagues in framework of their COACTIV-study for PISA 2003 developed a heuristic model of professional competence for teacher, in particular teachers for mathematics, drawn on Schulman’s theory and combined with idea of NBPTS 2002. )The competence of teacher in this model includes personal dispositions (beliefs, values, goals, motivational orientations, self-regulation), knowledge and skills based on five professional knowledge areas (subject-matter knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical psychological knowledge, knowledge of organization and consulting knowledge), each area is continuously classified into many other facets (Baumert & Kunter 2011, 32; Košinár 2014, 50). This model was adopted, discussed, and even criticized by other authors. The main commentaryarising concentrated on the fact that there is no interconnection between the competence facets, in addition, the concrete relation between these competencies and classroom were not pointed out. (Lehmann-Grube & Nikolaus 2009, 61; Košinár 2014, 50-51).

Some other authors focused on the competence of teachers relating to classroom activities. Bauer (2005) introduced his model “Taxonomy of educational skills” with emphasis on pedagogical basic competence concerning teaching competence including six dimensions: (1) Clarifying of teaching objectives and structuring content; (2) building social structures of classroom; (3) controlling interaction; (4) communicating and informing; (5) designing of learning environments, (6) implementing of background work (planning and organization) (Bauer 2005, 20, Košinár 2014, 51).

Hopf (2012) also built in her dissertation four following competence groups of vocational teacher relating to teaching competence:

(1) Professional competence (Fachkompetenz) refers to the ability of vocational teachers to master the professional knowledge to be learned and taught;

(2) method competence (Methodenkompetenz) refers to abilities of vocational teachers to clearly structure the teaching contents, to clearly build the concrete teaching content, to master the diversity of teaching methods and to give the performance diagnostics;

(3) relational competence (Beziehungskompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to well build and maintain the relationship with vocational learners;

(4) controlling competence (Kontrollkompetenz) refers to ability of vocational teachers to guide the vocational learners. (Hopf 2012, 60-62).

To build four above competence groups, Hopf considered Weinert’s and Klippert’s ideas about competence of teacher. According to Weinert (2000), teachers need four competence areas to have good teaching performance: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) competence of guiding learners in classroom. According to Klippert (2004), teachers need ten following competencies to effectively teach: (1) Expertise; (2) diagnosis competence; (3) didactic competence; (4) method competence; (5) instruction competence; (6) moderation competence; (7) consulting competence; (8) emotional competence; (9) competence of guiding learners in classroom; (10) cooperation competence.

Nevertheless just competencies concerning teaching ability are not adequate for determining of competence of teacher. It can be noted, that above concepts have not taken the relations between school and social context into consideration yet. Nieke (2012) added this factor when he gave another model, in which the competence of analysis of social context was added. According to Nieke’s model, teacher’s pedagogical competence consist of two parts: professional actions standing in center, including five phases ((1) determining of teaching objectives, (2) analyzing action situation, (3) planning, (4) implementing of teaching action with direct interaction, conveying of teaching content and action in organization, (5) evaluation) based on“background” competencies including competencies of analysis of social context (Gesellschaftsanalyse), self reflexion (Selbstreflexion) and diagnosis of situation (Situationsdiagnose). (Nieke 2012, 51; Košinár 2014, 54). This model of Nieke was appreciated due to the consideration of social context. However, as most of above theories, this structure faced to the commentary, that the interconnection among competencies was not taken into account (Košinár 2014, 53). Besides, the competence of vocational teacher specifically has not been analyzed in a concrete and systematic manner yet.

Soysouvanh and his colleagues, when developing a framework of competence standards of vocational teacher for Lao PDR, sketched five following competence areas: (1) Competence area of Acting in an exemplary manner; (2) competence area of Teaching, (3) competence area of Educating, (4) competence area of Assessment, (5) competence area of Self-Development and Innovation (Soysouvanh et al. 2013). These competence areas were built in consideration of concrete situation of Lao PDR and serve the actual situation in Lao, however can be used as a reference on the way to finding a common understanding of competence of vocational teacher in common sense. While doing their research, Soysouvanh and his colleagues based their research on a broad variety of international scientific literature, one of those is Hartmann’s notion about competence of vocational teachers (Soysouvanh et al. 2013).

In oder to contribute to providing an insight into competences of vocational teachers, Hartmann (2012) thoroughly developed a profile of vocational teacher profession with a diversified description of competences of vocational teachers based on the German experience. In this picture, the competences of vocational teachers were classified into two groups: competences relating to framework conditions and competences relating to professional activity content. In group of competences relating to framework conditions, Hartmann pointed out some relevant competences of vocational teachers, such as:

• analytical competence relates to the ability of vocational teachers to analyze the teaching content, the prerequisites of learners, the institutional teaching environment and the time structure;
• didactic pedagogical competence, which means that vocational teachers must master many diversified teaching methods to apply them appropriately in accordance with institutional conditions of vocational school and teaching objectives;
• negotiation competence, which describes that vocational teachers must be able to cooperate with colleagues to carry out her/his pedagogical duties in the context of school organization and for the common development of school;
• innovation competence refers to the fact that vocational teacher should be able to recognize her/his own needs of advanced training and improve her/his deficits.
• etc.

In group of competences relating to professional activity content, Hartmann emphasized many necessary competencies of vocational teacher, for examples:

• ability to analyse the picture of profession (which is learned and taught) and curriculum;
• ability to choose, structure the teaching content and to determine the teaching procedure in accordance with tendency of competence-oriented teaching as well as in consideration of working and learning places in dual system (cooperation between vocational school and factory/ company);
• ability to capture the fast changing technologies, to grasp processes of work in the real workplaces, to link real work processes with professional learning processes;
• etc.

A series of concrete competencies in each group was presented and discussed in a practical manner, analyzed adequately in detail (see Hartmann 2012, 79-118), that expressed the complexity and diversity of competencies of vocational teacher in real professional context.

Respecting the idea that competence of vocational teacher is still a complex, ill-structured domain facing the fast-change world with the tendency of sustainable development, we suggest a model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher with a coherent structure and the clear interconnection among competence areas that might help accommodate this complexity and reach a common understanding of this object for a new era of sustainability in development.

3 Model of pedagogical competence of vocational teacher as a basis for VTE with special respect to the Greening of TVET

The proposed model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers builds on the six competency domains, that have the close relations with each other, affect and enhance each other, rely on (or are influence by) the pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge/ skills. An overview of this model is illustrated by the following graphic:

Figure 1: Model of pedagogical competence for vocational teachers

More detailed descriptions of all components as well as the interactions among these components in the model are provided in the below section.

A.Six competence domains:

Teaching competence refers to the ability of teachers to carry out theoretical, practical or integrated instruction in the implementation of their teaching duties successfully. Teachers have to be able to determine learning objectives and teaching content on the basis of considering individual properties of vocational learners (e.g. their existing background, their social/ family/ personal characteristics, their needs etc.), as well as on the basis of the philosophy of education and training, the curricula and the corresponding link with the real work processes. Vocational teachers also have to capture, master many different teaching methods, and can choose the appropriate teaching methods for the lesson and the relevant measures for evaluating of learning results in accordance with learning objectives, learning content as well as with the tendency of pupil-centered teaching. Teaching competence also refers to the fact that the teachers can plan lessons, design a suitable and optimized learning and working environment, control and coordinate the learning process in the classroom flexibly, design interesting activities and relevant learning tasks to motivate the vocational learners, manage the learners as well as groups of learners, interact with vocational learners suitably and dominate teaching materials/ media/ tools. The vocational teachers are also expected to be sensible and creative enough to facilitate the learning processes of vocational learners, promote their active learning and their creativity, stimulate their intellectual development and help them in enhancement the professional skills and in achieving their learning goals.

Educating competence relates to the ability of teachers to support the vocational learners to improve their personality traits, e.g.: Through the teaching methods, the advice and the way of organization of work processes / learning processes, teachers can help the vocational learners in establishing the scientific worldview, practicing the discipline style, building awareness of occupational safety, environmental protection, as well as the awareness of saving (saving energy, fuel, material, etc.), the honesty, the cooperation etc. The teacher is also a role model, a good example for the vocational learners in terms of moral virtues such as: honesty, fairness, dependability, responsibility, etc. Especially, nowadays human beings have to face the ongoing climate change as well as risks of health problems and difficulties of living condition due to rapidly changing environmental conditions such as changing precipitation, melting snow and ice, altered hydrological systems and water resources, the warming and local changes in temperature etc. (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change – IPCC 2014, 4,6) as the consequences of human activities altering the atmospheric composition, that is the pressing issue of our time. The alarming climate change like the global warming requires the solutions urgently, and it can be noted that today sustainable development plays a very important role in all fields of the life including TVET. For this reason, it must be emphasized that vocational teachers in general and the technical vocational teachers in particular have to take responsibility to educate the vocational learners about the awareness of environmental protection. This competence should be considered as an important competence of vocational teachers nowadays and should be compiled and emphasized in professional profile of vocational teacher profession. The teachers should introduce the vocational learners to the environmentally friendly production processes and environmentally friendly technologies. It requires the modern, progressive knowledge and skills in terms of professional expertise of vocational teachers. The teachers must therefore always update and evolve their knowledge and skills, capture the changing technologies in order to be able to implement this educating duty. Additionally, it may be noted that the educating processes take place through the teaching processes/ during the teaching processes. That is why the educating competence has the close connection with the teaching competence, communicative and language competence, and other competencies, in particular with professional expertise.

Professional expertise/ professional competence concerns the abilities of teachers to master the subject-matter content/ scientific and occupational content, to keep it up to date and to use it appropriately, adequately within the classroom. Knowledge and skills differ greatly between professional fields, and vocational teachers must possess the deep knowledge and solid skills of the occupational field in which they teach in the flow of technology changes. Professional expertise is critically important to vocational teachers because the fact that vocational teachers have inadequate fundamentals of content knowledge and work skills definitely leads to the fact of providing the labour market with insufficiently skilled workers. For that reason, the vocational teachers should constantly develop their professional competence, in this case, the competence of self-reflection and improving qualifications and competence of linking real work processes with the professional learning processes along with knowledge on methodology of scientific research are very necessary and useful for the teachers to consolidate and expand their expertise. And the expertise certainly affects on the teaching competence and on educating competence, for example, if the teacher wants to educate the vocational pupils/ students about the awareness of environmental protection, it requires the specialized knowledge, skills in terms of environmentally friendly technologies, or when a vocational teacher wants to carry out a lesson, he/ she must coordinate the technical occupational content, so he/she definitely needs the expertise beyond teaching skills. So it can be stated that the professional expertise / professional competence is tightly connected with other competencies: it supports greatly other competencies and is strengthened by other competencies. Furthermore, nowadays humans have to cope with the quick-change world, the technology is changing rapidly, the industrialization occurs in many regions all over the world, especially in developing countries as well as in Asia, causes the environmental and health problems not also in Asia but also throughout the world, so it requires that the vocational teachers be able to keep their expertise up to date in the flow of technology changes, capture the new technologies, especially green technologies regarding renewable energies as well as green solutions for occupation to be learned and taught to contribute to environment protection and sustainable development.

In a broader sense, considering professional expertise as a critically vital competence of vocational teachers to compile and emphasize this competence in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession can also contribute to promoting of establishing the relevant policies relating to the investment for TVET field including adequate providing of modern machines, instruments, equipment for vocational schools, as well as increasing of vocational teachers’ salary in many countries, especially in developing countries with emerging economies and institutional voids. As we know, with low wages and obsolete equipment making vocational teachers lack appropriate experience, it is so difficult for vocational teachers to improve their expertise and to catch up new technologies.

Competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes describes the ability of teachers to integrate real work processes into vocational learning processes. It requires vocational teachers to consider the cooperative learning places and the content of the curriculum, which should contain vocational knowledge and skills in a practical manner. Teachers need to understand the processes of work in the real workplaces (factories, companies, businesses etc.) and be able to analyze the work processes. They need knowledge of job/work analysis in the field of vocational education and curriculum development. On the basis o results of job/work analysis, the teachers choose appropriate contents for curriculum and design the learning tasks in accordance with work duties, work tasks for vocational learners. In addition, teachers must try to find the possibilities of cooperation with other learning places beyond vocational school such as companies/ factories and try to exploit the chances of in-company training with these possibilities of cooperation. They also can use the opportunities of cooperation with colleagues from the other learning places. In countries that have the dual system in vocational training, such as Germany, it is easier for the teachers to find the cooperation with other factories/ companies, but in many other countries, particularly in developing countries (such as Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia etc. .), where there is no dual system, it requires the vocational teachers to make efforts to find the possibilities of cooperation with other factories / businesses/ companies. For this reason, the vocational teachers need to have the communicative competence and the flexibility to establish the personal relationships as well as the working relationships with colleagues in other working and learning places, with people in co-partners (companies, factories).In fact, there is a pressing issue in TVET field in developing countries, that the TVET graduates often have skill shortages or inappropriate skills and have to be trained again by the employer units. To contribute to shaking off this status, the competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes of vocational teachers needs to be added, compiled in vocational profile of vocational teaching profession. When the teachers possess this competence, they can help vocational learners acquire real skills or necessary work experience to meet the needs of employers and catch up new technologies in the companies/ factories, especially when the industrial companies nowadays constantly upgrade their technologies and have tendency to become environmentally friendly to attain the goal of sustainable development. With competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes, the vocational teachers are able to contribute not only to supplying the adequately qualified workers for recruitment, but also to promoting the dual system in their country. This competence also supports, consolidates professional expertise (professional competence), teaching competence and helps teachers constantly review the status of occupation to be learned and taught in flow of fastly rearranged work processes, update their knowledge and skills and through that, enhance their competence of  self-reflection and improving qualification.

Communicative and language competence involves the ability of teachers to use language and communicative skills to convey the learning content logically and attractively, to convince and to advice the vocational learners to educate them as well as to help them in learning processes, to moderate in the organization of open learning processes, to communicate effectively with parents of learners, with the colleagues as well as with the local and international co-partners (companies, factories, other vocational schools, regional or international organizations). This competence is an especially important competence for a teacher including the vocational teacher, because teachers always have to interact with other people/stakeholders (e.g. trainees, colleagues, businesses, factories, social services etc.). The interaction with the vocational learners happens in the process of conveying learning contents, controlling the classroom, consulting the learners. The communicative and language competence, therefore, supports the teaching competence and educating competence greatly. Knowledge of professional educational psychology and didactics along with the competence of self-reflection is very useful for the vocational teachers in improving this competence. In addition, the organization of teaching as well as the concrete curriculum is often determined in a collaboration with colleagues, in other words, in agreement with teaching staff, so the vocational teacher should be able to interact effectively with colleagues to co-make decisions and to share the instructional strategies to each other. The cooperation with other learning places (businesses, factories, companies) to link real work processes with professional learning processes also requires the negotiation skill of the vocational teachers. In a broader sense, nowadays the tendency of global cooperation plays a relevant role in all fields including TVET, for that, the vocational teachers should be able to use foreign languages besides communication skills to join in the international projects as well as to have international cooperative relationships to exchange the experiences and information, especially information about the technology changes as well as the new environmentally friendly technologies in field of TVET, through that they can improve their professional expertise. Thus, it can be stated that the communicative and language competence makes impacts on other competencies (in particular directly on the teaching competence and educating competence) and the vocational teachers need this competence to carry out their professional duties.

Competence of self-reflection and improving the qualifications refers to the abilities of teachers to reflect their own professional performance, the self-images, the professional goals, the professional ethics and/in order to improve the qualifications and professional quality. Vocational teachers should reflect on one’s own teaching result on the basis of analyzing and interpreting the pupils learning outcomes and the external results of the evaluations. Teachers should constantly control their professional competence (professional expertise), teaching competence, educating competence, communicative and language competence, competence of linking real  work processes with professional learning processes to improve these competencies during the process of execution of professional duties. They have to practice continuously and keep themselves up to date on new pedagogical theories, new technologies, especially the environmentally friendly technologies, as well as on the world of work. Lifelong learning is unavoidable task of vocational teachers, especially technical vocational teachers.

According to the above analysis, it can be stated that the pedagogical competence of vocational teachers is produced by the connection of all above networked competency domains that make impacts on each other and develop their effects with each other. These competency domains are based on (or influenced by) the below pedagogical basic knowledge as well as the additional knowledge and skills.

B. Educational basic knowledge:

Didactics (knowledge of teaching and learning process) supplies the deep knowledge of teaching objectives along with strategies of lesson planning, teaching contents, teaching methods (including concepts, concrete methods and teaching techniques), teaching materials, media, measures and processes of evaluation/ assessment, as well as the knowledge of learning process (learning theories, cognitive development, learning motivation, etc.).

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) relates to the application of didactics and pedagogical knowledge for teaching of a particular subject/ discipline/ occupation in consideration of the characteristics of this subject/ discipline/ occupation as well as the prior knowledge of learners and other matters of teaching and learning such as diversified teaching strategies, curriculum, instructional materials etc. PCK is compatible with Shulman’s theory (1986) about how the teacher can transform the subject matter into teaching (Schulman 1986; Koehler, Mishra 2009; Košinár 2014), but it should be emphasized, that this PCK relies not only on characteristics of scientific discipline but also on characteristics of vocational field.

Curricular knowledge refers to teacher’s deep knowledge not also about choosing and compiling of teaching program and teaching materials (Shulman 1986, Košinár 2014), but also about the developing vocational curriculum in consideration of the relationships between a vocational field and other relevant vocational fields, especially based on job analysis (also known as work analysis) accomplished by many different methods, such as DACUM (Collum 1985), observation of workers’ performance, interview and procedural review (Cascio &Aguinis 2005; Wilson 2007),job analysis worksheets; surveys, work assessments, JASP (Hartley, 1999) etc.

Pedagogical foundations and psychology cover the understanding of the philosophy of education and training; the intercultural, historical, sociological knowledge in terms of education; pedagogical psychology (developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, work psychology, features of trainees, features of vocational teachers such as ethics, skills, mission, interests, etc.), and consulting knowledge.

C. The additional knowledge and/or skills

Methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research: can help vocational teachers in doing research to improve their expertise.

Work – Technology – Education: provides theoretical basis in terms of relationships between work, technology and education.

Teaching technology: relates to knowledge and skills to teach with technology, from low-tech tools to high-tech tools such as presentation software, online learning etc.

etc.

The additional knowledge can be added and expanded according to the needs in reality.

4 Implications for the development of TVET-systems as a basis for the enhancement of the Greening

Technical vocational teachers contribute to producing worker resource in technical fields. The industrial wastes, the emission from obsolete technologies and the use of fossil fuels cause many serious environmental problems, so when the technical workers do not master new technologies and cannot operate their job in an environmentally friendly manner, they can contribute to causing environment pollution and climate change. Therefore, the training of highly skilled workforce with adequate capabilities and perception of protecting environment is very necessary. This goal cannot be achieved without eligible vocational teachers because the quality of vocational teachers affects the attainment of vocational learners directly. Along with above suggested model, some following initial implications at macro, meso and micro level are offered:

4.1 In terms of policies

At macro level, the governments should have the appropriate public funding for vocational education and training because vocational education plays a significant role when society today needs not only elite school but also mass school. This investment should include increasing vocational teacher’s salary (especially in developing countries, where the vocational teachers often do not have motivation to improve their competencies due to low salary which does not meet the needs of their life) to draw talented people into the field of vocational teaching, providing modern machines, equipments for vocational schools to facilitate efficient work regarding green technologies, renewable energy, new material etc. In addition, in developing countries, it is necessary to have efforts to improve institutional voids to compel industrial companies to comply with regulations regarding environment protection and to encourage these companies to cooperate with vocational schools to gradually build the dual system in field of TVET.

4.2 In terms of scientific research in vocational education

Using knowledge of methodology of scientific research and educational scientific research (mentioned as additional knowledge/skills in the above suggested model), the vocational teachers should do research in their subject frequently, besides carrying out their teaching duties, to master the up-to-date technologies with solutions of saving energy, protecting environment. On the other hand, the positive results of scientific research (at the companies, at the universities, in the institutes, etc.) regarding the green technology need to be transferred into vocational schools and the vocational teachers need to be coached based on these results of scientific research.

4.3 In terms of school administration and organization

School administrators should support vocational teachers to enhance their effective performance through providing them more pedagogical autonomy, helping them find relationship with companies/ factories on behalf of school/ institution, giving them opportunities/conditions to upgrade their expertise (for example: organizing professional advanced courses for frequently training vocational teachers, expanding the domestic and international cooperation so that vocational teachers have chances to update and exchange knowledge and experience of new technologies, especially environmentally friendly technologies, equipping with modern machinery as much as possible to facilitate process of working and cultivating of teachers etc.). Each vocational school should make efforts to build eligibility criteria to recruit teachers as well as to build accordant systems to control teacher’s competences, e.g. through feedback from pupils/ students, from enterprises or through controlling out-come quality. In addition, to organize competitions, movements and conferences regarding green technology and sustainable development in field of vocational teaching should be appreciated and expanded.

4.4 In terms of vocational teacher education

Applying the suggested model of competences with strengthened structure as an instrument, vocational teachers in the present era should be aware of their essential competences in order to be effective in the classroom as well as to fulfill new requirements of vocational teaching profession in the rapidly changing world in which the tendency of sustainable development is critical and unavoidable. With an insight into necessary competences, which they should or must acquire, vocational teachers should have cognizance of their own duties and responsibilities, when facing the world with fatal climate change and global warming. They should constantly self – reflect their performance to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses among the six stated competency domains to promote the strengths and improve the weaknesses to pursue their career professionally. They should commit themselves to cultivating six stated competence domains to ensure necessary capabilities to carry out their duties adequately. In vocational teacher education, the setting of training objectives should be implemented based on the accordant understanding of required competences of vocational teachers in a world of sustainable development.

4.5 In terms of engineer education and training

Securing the quality of engineer education is very significant, because vocational teachers cannot implement their main duties (teaching and educating) without their expertise, in particular when green technologies always require updated knowledge and skills from vocational teachers. Therefore, measures to ensure the quality of training engineers at technical universities should be built and strengthened. On the other hand, in engineer education as well as vocational teacher education and training, factors “life-long learning”, “learning of learning methods” and “scientific research methodology” should be taken into account in context of the fact that knowledge of human beings develops rapidly every day. The combination of professional expertise, pedagogical competencies and awareness of duties and responsibilities concerning environment protection will help vocational teachers promote their roles in their profession adequately.

4.6 In terms of cooperation of learning venues

Building the dual system in field of TVET is very necessary to improve the negative image of TVET in East and Southeast Asia, where the TVET graduates must be often trained again by the employers due to the lack of experience and due to the inadequate curriculum, which often has no relation with real work processes. The cooperation of vocational schools and companies will help not only the vocational learners, but also the vocational teachers in improving their competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes. The building of dual system cannot be based only on the effort of individual vocational teacher, but it also needs the support from policy system, from the strategies of school administration.

4.7 In terms of development of curriculum, development of learning materials and development of assessment materials

The curriculum for VTE needs to be compiled in respect of the green skills of vocational teachers with their cross – influences. Due to the interweaving and the ongoing interaction between these competences in a strong structure, it is required to have the certain unification in terms of content regarding the greening on different subjects (didactics, pedagogical content knowledge, curriculum development, pedagogical psychology etc.). For example:

• On the subject of vocational pedagogical psychology, it is essential to emphasize the roles and the interaction of the above suggested green skills when discussing features of vocational teachers;
• On the subject of didactics or pedagogical content knowledge, it is necessary to mention the greening when discussing learning objectives, learning contents, teaching methods, learning evaluations: (1) Learning objectives: It is relevant to discuss, which learning objectives (in terms of knowledge, in terms of skills, in terms of awareness) regarding the greening that the vocational learners should achieve; (2) Learning contents: It is essential to emphasize, how important it is, when the up-to-date technologies with the solutions of saving energy and environmental protection are conveyed as learning contents for vocational learners; (3) Teaching methods: Besides of discussing general teaching methods in education, it is also interesting and actual to discuss, which teaching forms could be used to wake the awareness of environmental protection of the vocational learners up; (4) Learning evaluations: Besides of discussing the forms and criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding expertise as the observable and measurable behaviors of vocational learners (the first factor), it is necessary to discuss the forms or criterion to evaluate the knowledge, skills and awareness regarding the greening (the second factor) of vocational learners. The development of assessment materials for vocational learners, which integrate two mentioned factors, is also a relevant theme for educators in the present era of sustainable development.
• On the subject of vocational curriculum development: The vocational teachers need to be conveyed the method to develop the vocational curriculum based on the results of job/ work analysis in respect of modern technology with solutions of saving energy and environmental protection in this occupation. The learning materials for vocational learners also need to be compiled based on this spirit.

5 Conclusion

In Vietnam, the awareness of environmental protection is rather low and the sector of green economy is still small. Now, there are neither the green occupations nor the requirements of green skills for green occupations in Vietnam (TVET-Vietnam Organization 2015). However, Vietnamese government has launched the Green Growth Strategy to deal with the environmental and socio-economic challenges towards sustainable development, in which, the Greening TVET is held for an important issue to develop an adequate workforce with green skills to meet the requirements of Green economy development. A series of activities on “Greening TVET” in the frame of the Vietnamese – German Programme Reform of TVET in Vietnam took place, e.g.: “Greening TVET” at the Green-Biz 2013 exhibition; The International Leadership Training (ILT) on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Job”; Seven Vietnamese young professionals graduated from GIZ-supported training on “TVET, Climate Change and Green Jobs”; “Green TVET” on a mission; Green skills development – essential for the transition to green growth; etc. (TVET – Vietnam Organization, 2015). It can be stated, that the Green Skills development for the existing occupations and for new occupations in Vietnam as well as in other countries in East and Southeast Asia is very crucial. The suggested model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers for greening TVET and the above initial recommendations could contribute to consolidating the professional profile of vocational teaching occupation and to process of Green Skills development in the field of TVET.

References

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Citation

Diep, P.C. & Hartmann, M. (2016). Green Skills in Vocational Teacher Education – a model of pedagogical competence for a world of sustainable development. In: TVET@Asia, issue 6, 1-19. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue6/diep_hartmann_tvet6.pdf (retrieved 30.01.2016)

The establishment of ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015 with the intention of creating a single regional market and integration of ASEAN into the global economy has posed many challenges for the countries in the region. Labour mobility is still hampered due to differences in qualifications, language barriers, and the lack of uniformity in standards within the region. Playing an important role in providing trained labour resources, TVET in ASEAN also encounters many challenges regarding the assurance of training quality, the mutual recognition of qualifications at regional level, the lack of quantity and quality of TVET teachers and instructors, the lack of cooperation between TVET and the industrial sector, the standardization and harmonization in TVET across the region, and the difficulties in making policies and in governance. Based on the information of the current situation as well as the existing instruments of TVET in ASEAN, this paper suggests some solutions to deal with the mentioned issues. Some examples to be noted are fostering the implementation of cooperative training model (CTM), developing regional/ national standards of in-school teachers and in-company instructors, developing Regional/ National Vocational Qualification Framework, setting Regional/ National Occupational Skill Standards, and establishing Regional/ National Institutions of TVET Accreditation.

Key words: National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF), Regional Vocational Qualification Framework (RVQF), cooperative training model (CTM), in-company teacher, in-school instructor, vocational teacher education (VTE).

1 Background

For a people-centered sustainable development, many countries in Asia have taken part in regional congresses, which promote the development of TVET and VTE. The Hangzhou Declaration 2004 with 68 participants from 25 countries discussed the challenges in promoting intercultural understanding and knowledge sharing among developed and developing countries, the lack of research culture for the development of TVET, the fragmentation in VTE, the importance of developing TVET, and VTE and restructuring of TVET systems (UNESCO – UNEVOC 2004). In 2008, the First World Congress on Teacher Education for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) was organized in Indonesia and adopted the Bandung Declaration on TVET Teacher Education “Shaping TVET-Teacher Education for the changing world of work” calling for high quality initial teacher education for an improvement in vocational skills for employability and citizenship, linking expertise in the pedagogy of TVET with integrative perspectives on school-based and work-based learning.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which represents an active region within the emerging economies in Asia, has also been promoting cooperation between nations across the region as well as beyond the region. Based on geographical similarity and mutual understanding, the ASEAN Economical Community (AEC) was founded in 2015, which facilitates the free flow of goods, services, investment and capital across the region and fosters the integration of the ASEAN to the global economy (ASEAN Secretariat 2015 a, 2015 b). The establishment of the AEC not only opens many opportunities for the member countries, but also brings them many considerable challenges. As one of the key areas providing a trained labour force for the regional labour market in the context of AEC, TVET in ASEAN is, therefore, also encountering many relevant challenges regarding:

Assurance of training quality, improving curricula and the manner of training to be in line with the demands of the real working environment,

• the issues of mutual recognition of qualifications in order to facilitate the free flow of services, which allows the free mobility of a trained labour force,
• the issue of standardization and harmonization in TVET across the region,
• the lack of quantity and quality of TVET teachers and instructors,
• the lack of cooperation between TVET sector and industrial sector,
• the lack of information about job opportunities across the region,
• the difficulties in making effective policies in the field of TVET due to the lack of the comprehensive researches in TVET,
• the application of environmentally friendly technologies to develop the “Green TVET”.
• the low funding from governments,
• the low attractiveness of TVET to young people (Gennrich 2016, on behalf of RAVTE).

In order to address such challenges, the recent debates of the ASEAN, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), the Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP), the Regional Association of Vocational Teacher Education (RAVTE), the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Colombo Plan Staff College (CPSC), the East Asia Summit, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Asia Europe Meeting (ASEM) and the German Development Ministry (BMZ) discussed and applied many initiatives in TVET. Some featured initiatives can be mentioned, such as the National Qualification Framework (NQF), the TVET Quality Assurance Framework suggested by East-Asia Summit (EAS TVET QAF), the ASEAN qualification reference framework (AQRF), and the publication of the journal TVET@Asia. The SEAMEO VOCTECH also discussed ten concrete initiatives to improve the quality of TVET in the period of ASEAN economic integration:“(1) TVET quality assurance, (2) qualification framework, (3) relevancy of curriculum to incorporate green technology, employability skills including entrepreneurship and high order thinking skills, (4) articulation, (5) authentic teaching-learning and assessment, (6) ICT in TVET, (7) research and development, (8) access and equity, (9) lifelong learning, and (10) graduate employability” (Paryono 2013 b; SEAMEO VOCTECH 2013). At the same time, the representatives of RCP, CPSC, SEAMEO VOCTECH, UNESCO Bangkok, German Corporation for International Cooperation (GIZ), ASEAN University Network (AUN), Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (RMUTT) also issued the Thanyaburi Statement in 2013 (Schröder 2017) with a consensus on five action orientations:

1. enhancing the cooperation and exchange of the best experience in the field of Vocational Teacher Education (VTE),
2. developing VTE and TVET into an independent scientific discipline, intensifying the exchange of research results in the region,
3. strengthening research in VTE,
4. raising awareness of the importance of TVET and VTE for policymakers at the national and regional level, and
5. improving frameworks and instruments to foster the development of VTE and to measure the effectiveness and efficiency of policies and carrying out VTE strategies (AUN, CPSC, RCP, RMUTT, SEAMEO VOCTECH, & UNESCO Bangkok 2013).

Within such a context, this paper aims to present further discussion regarding the solutions to improve the quality of TVET during the ASEAN economic integration with the challenges mentioned above.

Methodology: The paper uses the theoretical research method, in which, the researcher collects and analyses information as well as evidence about the current situations and existing instruments in the field of TVET in the region as the basis for suggesting the solutions for the improvement of TVET quality in the period of ASEAN economic integration.

2 Some solutions for improving TVET quality against the backdrop of ASEAN economic integration

2.1 First issue: Professional development of TVET teachers and personnel

To develop TVET, the professionalization of TVET teachers plays a significant role, thus, this issue is emphasized in many TVET discussions in the region (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2012; Witaya 2013; Lipsmeier 2013; AUN, CPSC, RCP, RMUTT, SEAMEO VOCTECH, & UNESCO Bangkok 2013; Sharifuddin 2014; BMZ 2015; Vu X.H. 2016; Diep 2016; Gennrich 2016). Currently, there are two forms of VTE worldwide as well as in the region basically: concurrent model and consecutive model.

• Concurrent model refers to the fact that the training of technical expertise is implemented in parallel with the training of pedagogical competence. This form helps to enhance the professionality of VTE and helps students to identify the career at an early stage (Lipsmeier 2013).
• Consecutive model refers to the fact that the training of technical expertise is implemented first (e.g. bachelor with duration: 03-04 years), then the training of pedagogical competence is added (duration: 06 months to 01 years). This form helps the graduates (from technical universities or colleges) or the masters/ practitioners in companies, who have professional experience and/or have desire to become a vocational teacher/ instructor become vocational teachers/ in-company instructors after being provided with the training in pedagogical competence.

Corresponding to these forms of VTE, there is the existing situation, that in-school teachers, who are often employed after graduation, are often lacking in industrial experience and practical skills, meanwhile in-company instructors are often lacking in pedagogical experience. In general, it can be noted, that at present, there is a lack of quantity and quality of vocational teachers/ instructor in the region (AUN, CPSC, RCP, RMUTT, SEAMEO VOCTECH, & UNESCO Bangkok 2013).

Besides the TVET teaching staff, other personnel of TVET (e.g. the management staff at governmental and school level, the executives of businesses) also play an important role in promoting the quality of TVET. The issue of enhancing the professionalism of TVET personnel is still an especially important issue in the context of TVET in ASEAN. Under the support of Germany (GIZ; BMZ), the Regional Cooperation Program to Improve the Training of TVET Personnel (RECOTVET) has been focusing on human capacity development for TVET personnel in ASEAN member countries and China, with Viet Nam as a project coordinative location from 2014 to 2017. TVET teachers, administrators and managers from ministries, vocational training institutions, industry federations and businesses receive training on regionally relevant topics, which help them to design, implement and evaluate training programs in accordance with the requirements of industry and the real working environment (BMZ 2015; GIZ 2016).

Solutions

• Maintaining the diversity of the forms of vocational teacher education (VTE) with concurrent model and consecutive model in order to enhance the ability of the teachers and to sufficiently provide the number of vocational teachers for TVET.
• Promoting cooperation with enterprises to foster the praxis-orientation in VTE. The following directions of cooperation should be carried out in parallel:
• Improving the practical skills for in-school teachers by promoting the participation of enterprises in training of pre-service teachers and in-service teachers. More specifically, enterprises should be encouraged to facilitate in-company manufacturing-oriented practice of technical pedagogical students (pre-service teachers) as well as in-service teachers. Technical pedagogical universities and vocational institutions should actively persuade enterprises about their interests in cooperation in VTE and sign legally binding cooperation contracts. In most member countries of ASEAN, VTE is implemented at educational institutions (e.g. technical pedagogical universities, centers of teacher education). There has been almost no policy with specified terms on the scope, responsibilities and interests of enterprises in coordination in VTE yet. This is also one necessary research theme to be promoted to enhance the participation of enterprises in VTE.
• Training the pedagogical competence of practitioners at enterprises, so that they can become harmonically-skilled in-company instructors. The practitioners at enterprises have real professional experience, but they lack pedagogical knowledge and skills. Therefore, adequate training of pedagogical competence for them is required when implementing the cooperative training model (CTM), which refers to the form of cooperation between vocational schools and business enterprise in the implementation of vocational training programmes (this will be mentioned again in 2.7).
• Establishing and maintaining long-term and medium-term projects relating to training of TVET personnel at the regional and national level. This would reinforce the linkages between political decision-makers, managers of vocational training institutions and the executives of businesses in the design, implementation and evaluation of training programs, thus meeting the requirements of industry and the real working environment in the context of the establishment of the AEC.

2.2 Second issue: Practice of TVET quality assurance, development of TVET accreditation system

This trend is identified in recent debates in TVET ASEAN (SEAMEO VOCTECH 2013; Paryono 2013b, 2013c; Sharifuddin 2014; Vu X.H. 2016, Diep 2016). The TVET system needs some effective instrument to assure TVET quality; one of these factors is ‘standards’. Spoettl (2016) noted that a ‘standard’ is an instrument used to define the quality of education, the quality of teacher training programmes, a basis to guide the development of curricula, and is used to assess learning results in TVET. Loose & Spoettl (2014) also determined that “the occupational standards which are the basis for training should be paramount in being binding as outcomes of the programmes as well as reference points for the anticipated demand of the employers”. Aware of the significance of standards in TVET, the countries in the region made efforts to build their own standards for VTE. Lao PDR has structured the standards for vocational teachers into five competence areas: acting in exemplary manner, educating, teaching, assessment, self-development and innovation, with concrete criteria for each area (Soysouvanhet et al. 2013). Vietnam also issued standards for vocational teachers focusing on four evaluation areas: ethics, expertise competence, vocational training pedagogical competence, competence for self-development and doing research. Each of these areas is continuously developed into detailed criteria (MoLISA 2010). The RECOTVET Working Group 1 is developing Regional Standards for VTE. However, the final draft of Regional Standards for VTE is yet to be adopted and officially published.

Besides standards for school-teachers, standards for in-company instructors/trainers also play an important role. The draft of “Framework Standard for In-company Trainers in the Mekong Region and the Philippines” was initiated by Dr. Grosch (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology) with the approval of Prof. Dr. Fischer and some feedback from GIZ team. According to this framework, besides the prerequisites regarding personality, qualification, experience, Grosch suggests four modules: (1) Analyzing work tasks and defining learning requirements, (2) Planning and preparing training, (3) Conducting training, (4) Evaluation and further development of training. Each module is continuously developed into (1) Competencies (what an in-company trainer can do), (2) Skills/ Knowledge (which knowledge or skills an in-company trainer has to acquire to realize each competency), (3) Contents/ Topics (to be taught for in-company trainers, so that they can possess the competencies and skills/ knowledge). This draft has yet to be completed and the author calls for the improvement of this draft (Grosch 2016). Within the framework of the project “Vietnamese-German Vocational Centre” implemented by GIZ in Vietnam, Prof. Bui The Dung on behalf of GIZ also developed “standards for in-company teachers”. The author chose the term “in-company teacher” instead of “in-company instructor” or “in-company trainer” “in order to promote the function of the “in-company teachers” who take over an important new role equivalent to the role of school/ college teachers in formal education” (Bui T. D. 2015). In comparison with activities of a vocational teacher and based on experience relating to the real activities of in-company teachers involved in the implementation of the “cooperative training model” (CTM) in Vietnam, Bui T.D. designed an occupation analysis chart. This chart shows the five main duties, with their concomitant tasks, of an in-company teacher:

(1)       Develop training plan: An in-company teacher must be able to identify/ determine the training requirements, check training conditions at the company, make plans for training implementation;

(2)       Prepare the teaching process: An in-company teacher must be able to make teaching plans for a company training module, elaborate lesson plans, prepare teaching media, prepare working appliances;

(3)       Implement the teaching process: An in-company teacher must be able to create an active learning environment, implement teaching processes according to the lesson plan, manage the learning process, apply effective teaching methods;

(4)       Evaluate learning outcomes: An in-company teacher must be able to make evaluation plans, develop evaluation tools, implement evaluation plans;

(5)       Making training report: An in-company teacher must be able to make a report on the training process, draw-on training experience, propose measures to improve training quality, manage learner’s documents.

In addition, essential knowledge and skills are also listed. Nevertheless, it can be readily seen that there has been no consensus on formal regional standards for in-company instructors up to now.

In terms of accreditation, there is the existing Asia Pacific Accreditation and Certification Commission (APACC) conceived by CPSC. On behalf of APACC, Dr. Alto points out many obstacles for accreditation in the region, such as, the status of regional accreditation is not standardized and harmonized, the lack of national accreditation systems and other TVET standards in some countries, the diversified and dis-unified feature of accreditation systems in the region, the implementation of accreditation is hampered by “limited institutional capacities, limited funding sources, lack of skilled human sources and other logistics to sustain efforts” (Alto 2016).

Solutions

• Developing and strengthening the National Occupational Skill Standards and Regional Occupational Skill Standards;
• Developing and consolidating the National Standards of TVET Accreditation and Regional Standards of TVET Accreditation. Countries should benchmark their own NSTA against RSTA to ensure the relative uniformity of accreditation system;
• The countries in ASEAN should establish and improve the system of national and private institutions of TVET accreditation. Also, the establishment of Regional Centers of TVET Accreditation is necessary;
• The countries should strengthen National Standards for VTE and establish National Standards for In-company Instructors/ Teachers/ Trainers;
• Regional political organizations should promote the establishment of Regional Standards for In-school Teachers and Regional Standards for In-company Instructors/ Teachers/ Trainers;
• Standardization is necessary for enhancing TVET quality in response to ASEAN economic integration. However, there are often differences (or deviations) between regional and national standards. Therefore, there should be solutions for harmonization, to feasibly apply the standards in the region. One solution is that there should be a certain flexibility in adopting criteria and indicators when designing sets of standard. Accordingly, the designed criteria and indicators can vary within an acceptable range (from the lowest acceptable indicators to the highest indicators which can be attained), instead of being locked into a rigid frame of absolute standards.

2.3 Third issue: Synchronization of regional qualification frameworks

The synchronization of qualification frameworks facilitates the mutual recognition of qualifications and labor recruitment across borders in the context of the AEC. This trend has been emphasized in many recent discussions in TVET ASEAN (Witaya 2013; Paryono 2013c; Vu X.H. 2016, Diep 2016). As mentioned above, some instruments for the synchronization of regional qualification frameworks have been initiated, such as the National Qualification Framework (NQF), the Regional Qualification Framework (RQF), and ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF). Currently, many countries in the region have developed a NQF. In reality, the RQF with 7 levels was initially developed by ASEAN Secretariat, International Labour Organization (ILO) Bangkok, UNESCO Bangkok, and SEAMEO in 1998. It was piloted in some countries in the region. Its outline has been accepted by 5 countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam) (Paryono 2013a; Dang 2011; Diep 2016). The AQRF with 8 levels was initially developed in 2010 and was endorsed by the Ministers of Finance, Education and Labour (Bautista 2016). However, it still seems to be difficult to find a consensus for RQF in whole region to date. According to the RAVTE, the fact that there are still some countries without NQF has been hampering the successful implementation of AQRF for many years (Gennrich 2016). 

Solutions

• The Regional Qualification Framework (RQF) should be continuously promoted to support the integration of ASEAN globally.
• The countries in the region should develop a National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF). This is the initiative which Vietnam pointed out in the Vocational Training Development Strategy of Vietnam 2011- 2020 (VPM 2012, Diep 2016).
• Because there are still difficulties to find a consensus for a RQF, some countries in the region are utilizing the AQRF. Another appropriate solution to be considered, is that a Regional Vocational Qualification Framework (RVQF) should be established. It may be easier to find a consensus for a RVQF than to find a consensus in RQF. RVQF can be regarded as a transnational frame for accreditation and certification of vocational qualifications.

2.4 Fourth issue: Curriculum change, transferable skills, life-long learning

This is a current issue mentioned in several discussions in TVET (Paryono 2013c; Witaya 2013; Brennan Kemmis, Hodge, & Bowden 2014; Paryono 2014; Sharifuddin 2014; BMZ 2015; Che Rus, Yasin, & Rasul 2014; Diep 2016). Curriculum in TVET should be improved to meet the requirements of the real working world and to help learners acquire transferable skills. The definition of “transferable skills” can be understood in many different ways by different countries, e.g. Malaysia holds them for employability skills with K-Worker framework encompassing three competencies: (1) technical competency, (2) social and humanistic competency, and (3) methodological and learning competency (Che Rus, Yasin, & Rasul 2014); Brunei and Australia have the relatively same concept of transferable skills when considering them as life skills with eight components: (1) communication, (2) teamwork, (3) problem-solving, (4) initiative and enterprising, (5) planning and organizing, (6) self-management (and competitiveness), (7) learning, (8) technology (and applying numeracy, design) (Paryono 2014); Vietnam tends to access to German concept of vocational action competence with three main domains: (1) expertise competence (Fachkompetenz), (2) social competence (Sozialkompetenz), (3) personal competence (Personalkompetenz). Despite the different concepts of transferable skills, it can be stated, that transferable skills are useful and necessary competencies, which the learners have to acquire to deal with their private and occupational life.

Solutions

• Build regional standard vocational institutions with advanced standard curricula which are developed on the basis of job analysis, enterprise surveys as well as regional occupational skill standards. The curricula need to be regularly updated according to changes and developments in the professions. Teaching methods applied in these institutions need to be student-centered in accordance with the concept of competence-based training to develop comprehensive competencies for the learners.
• The standard learning resources should be put on intermediary webs which facilitate the self-learning and life-long learning of learners. These are also valuable as open reference sources for vocational schools in countries of the region.
• Vocational institutions in each country in the region should develop and improve their training programmes flexibly based on research on enterprise demands. These programmes should meet national and regional standards.
• The teaching methods in TVET should be improved in the praxis-oriented and action-oriented direction. Active learning is necessary for building the holistic competence of the learners.
• Collaboration with enterprises in building and revising training programmes is highly recommended.

2.5 Fifth issue: Horizontal and vertical articulations

This trend refers to the mutual recognition and the possibility of training transition between vocational institutions. Horizontal articulation describes the possibility of training transition, based on occupational fields, between institutions at the same training level. Vertical articulation describes the possibility of training transition according to the training levels between institutions of low education level and institutions of high education level. The training transition between vocational institutions promotes the professionalization of TVET and enhances the attractiveness of TVET for learners. Paryono mentioned this trend in his research in 2013 (Paryono 2013c; Diep 2016).

Solution

In the context of the establishment of AEC with the free flow of service (as well as trained labourers); horizontal and vertical training articulations should be developed not only in a country, but also in the whole of the region. To facilitate the training transition based on mutual recognition of qualifications in whole of region, the Regional Vocational Qualification Framework (RVQF) should be developed, as mentioned above in the third trend.

2.6 Sixth issue: Labour mobility, graduate employability, career guidance and job information

The establishment of AEC stimulates labour mobility in the region. Therefore, this trend is mentioned in discussions of TVET in ASEAN (Paryono 2013c; Sharifuddin 2014; BMZ 2015; Diep 2016). In reality, the transnational movement of labourers confronts many obstacles caused by many reasons: limited English language skill of labourers, the lack of job information (in particular overseas jobs), the lack of intermediary organizations introducing job possibilities and giving guidance, the inadequacy of training quality.

Solutions

• It may be relevant to establish a Regional Career Center, where research on labour demands and occupational trends in the region are implemented. It would also be available as an intermediary organization connecting information between enterprises and labourers in the region, introducing job opportunities, supplying career guidance and legal consultation for employees. There should be an intermediary website, where enterprises and labourers across region can “meet each other” based on self-introduction and expression of their demands/needs.
• In a similar manner, countries should establish National Career Centers to help the graduates find job in a convenient way.
• Intensifying of English education in TVET programmes.
• The regional political organizations should continuously support countries in developing cooperation with industrial sectors in TVET. The close cooperation between vocational institutions and enterprises can improve TVET quality, which facilitates the learner’s possibilities to find a job.

2.7 Seventh issue: Good governance, TVET policy reform and the networking within the region

Policies at the macro level always make decisive impacts on all fields of society including TVET. Therefore, the issue regarding governance, TVET policy reform and networking within the region has been an important issue in recent TVET discussions (Witaya 2013; Sharifuddin 2014; BMZ 2015; Vu X.H. 2016; Diep 2016; Gennrich 2016). The policy of low funding for TVET leads to many problems for TVET in ASEAN regarding attracting competent teachers, investment in machinery/equipment, implementation of accreditation mechanisms, assuring training quality and implementation of good governance. RAVTE cited the research result of UNESCO 2014, that “TVET institutions are largely underfinanced as reflected in the relatively low level of direct budget allocations made by governments“. RAVTE also calls for implementing systemic administrative reforms, ensuring the regional comparability, permeability and mobility in TVET (Gennrich 2016).

Solutions

• Sustaining the existing network in the region which fosters cooperation through platforms, dialogues, conferences, training courses, cooperative projects etc. The countries in the region can share their effective TVET policies through these instruments.
• The political regional organizations should help the countries in establishing projects of national reform of TVET governance system.
• The countries should raise awareness about the importance of vocational training, increase the financial investments for vocational training, especially the investments for facilities, machinery and equipment. Lipsmeier (2013) also emphasized that the quality of TVET in general and the quality of VTE in particular depends on many factors including the equipment and an equipped library.
• Mobilization of investment from private sectors.

2.8 Eighth issue: Developing the collaboration with industrial sectors

Unlike developed countries such as Germany, Australia, and Japan, the process of cooperation with industrial sectors in TVET in ASEAN occurs slowly and is difficult, although the concept is a current trend as mentioned in many discussions (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2012; BMZ 2015; Sharifuddin 2014; Vu X.H. 2016; Diep 2016). Enhancing the collaboration between technical pedagogical universities, vocational institutions and enterprises can improve the “competence of linking real work processes with professional learning processes” in vocational teachers. This is one of competencies proposed by Diep P.C & Hartmann M. on the model of pedagogical competence of vocational teachers for a world of sustainable development (Diep & Hartmann 2016). Particularly, it can efficiently help in improving the TVET training quality to fulfill the requirements of real-life working world.

Currently, the implementation of collaboration between TVET institutions and enterprises in ASEAN often occurs in two forms:

(1)       Vocational institutions and universities of technology and education send the learners to enterprises for the short-term internship or traineeship. This is the popular and easy-implemented form in most countries.

(2)       Vocational institutions and enterprises carry out the medium-term or long-term, structured training programmes co-developed and carried out by vocational institutions and enterprises. The training process takes place in two places in parallel: (1) at school for the vocational theory and basic practice under the instruction of school-teachers, (2) at enterprise level for the advanced and manufacturing-oriented practice under the guidance of in-company instructors. This model can be called “cooperative training model” (CTM). CTM is different from short-term internship. This form is still not popular and encounters many difficulties in ASEAN due to the undeveloped industries in ASEAN and the lack of policies in guiding the implementation of the CTM. This collaboration mainly exists based on an own consensus between a vocational institution and an enterprise with the consent of learners and/or learners’ parents.

Examples of implementation of collaboration between TVET institutions and industry sector are given in Vietnam and Malaysia. In recent years, Vietnam has been piloting some forms of cooperation between businesses and educational institutions including the cooperative training model (CTM) to find out the useful experience and the feasible process to be widely deployed in the future within the Vietnamese context. Hasan, Malek, and Mohamad (2015) also shared the experience of Malaysia in the implementation of TVET agency-industry cooperation.

Solutions

Besides the form of short-term internship and traineeship, ASEAN countries should have strategies to develop CTM in accordance with the context of member countries. This form brings benefits for all stakeholders: (1) CTM helps the learners gain access to the real working environment in a practical manner, be familiar with the modern industrial technologies, have high quality training, acquire the occupational skills that meet the requirements of industry, have more job opportunities, (2) CTM helps TVET institutions save investment expenses on equipment and machinery by taking advantage of the facilities at the enterprise, (3) CTM helps businesses save cost of retraining workers, and reduces difficulties with recruitment, (4) CTM helps society solve many problems in addressing unemployment, reduces expenses in TVET, creates a TVET system with high efficiency and effectiveness, which provides the high-skilled labour force stimulating the development of economies.

The issue of policies promoting the collaboration between TVET institutions and industry should be especially concerned at the regional and national level. Governments should provide legally binding regulations on concrete rights and responsibilities of enterprises in participating in VTE and TVET, as well as policies guiding the implementation of CTM in reality. The theme CTM should become an important topic to be continuously discussed in the upcoming debates in the field of TVET in ASEAN. Member countries should share their experience in implementation of CTM through the dialogues, conferences, journal etc.

2.9 Ninth issue: Extension of knowledge sharing and dialogues, expanding access and equity

To promote the development of TVET in the region, the issue of expanding access of TVET information is noted in recent discussions (Paryono 2013c; Sharifuddin 2014; Diep 2016; Gennrich 2016; RAVTE 2016). The cooperation between RAVTE, UNESCO Bangkok and SEAMEO VOCTECH has offered TVET@Asia as an effective instrument to spread TVET information/research results in the region and to create data base on TVET/VTE-related subjects.

Solutions       

• Sustaining existing conferences, journal, workshops, dialogues, etc.,
• The Regional TVET Portal could be set up. On this portal, information of TVET, careers, needs of recruitment of enterprises in the region would be available.
• Building the Online Learning Resources with the E-learning packages and the regional standard curricula to help the vocational learners learn by themselves and help the vocational institutions gain access to regional standard curricula.
• The ‘call for papers’ for every issue of TVET@Asia should be distributed to all important TVET-related institutions (to the managers of these institutions) to remind them of their responsibilities, as participating in the regional political organization, to raise awareness of the importance of TVET, VTE and to promote research and sharing experience/research results/significant information in the regional TVET community. The journal also should become a journal with high impact-factor in the field of TVET. This may then stimulate the motivation of researchers to contribute to this effective tool.

2.10 Tenth issue: Research and development

TVET in ASEAN still has difficulties in implementing the collaboration of vocational institutions and enterprises, making policy and applying green technologies in TVET towards sustainable development. The significance of doing research for the development of TVET is mentioned in some recent debates (Paryono 2013c; AUN, CPSC, RCP, RMUTT, SEAMEO, VOCTECH, & UNESCO BANGKOK 2013; Chang & Trzmiel 2013; Diep 2016; RAVTE 2016). UNESCO Bangkok determined that collaborative research is a way of addressing important regional issues, and, therefore, facilitated collaborative research in the region (Chang & Trzmiel 2013). Education policy and reform fosters different forms of research cooperation in the region, which support the governments by offering policy advice to reform education systems based on working analysis, knowledge management, capacity building and regional networks. Besides the activities in knowledge management and knowledge sharing, UNESCO Bangkok has been hosting some networks meaningful for research and development, such as Education Institutes Network in the Asia-Pacific, Network on Education Quality Monitoring in Asia and the Pacific the annual UNESCO-KEDI (Korean Educational Development Institute) seminar. Research programmes to promote educational policy review in some countries are also supported by UNESCO Bangkok, e.g.  the Comprehensive Education Sector Review in Myanmar, Education Policy Review in Malaysia and, TVET Policy Review in Lao PRD. The cooperation between UNESCO Bangkok, RCP, RAVTE, SEAMEO VOCTECH also offers research possibilities to regional experts. The establishment of TVET@Asia Journal is a significant initiative and a remarkable effort on promoting the sharing of scientific information and research results in the region. Despite some recent efforts, Asia in general and ASEAN in particular still encounter many challenges in research when they “remain at the periphery of the global research system“ (Chang & Trzmiel 2013) and “East Asia and the Pacific ranks relatively low in history in relation to theoverall ranking” (Ranken, Hoekman, & Hardeman 2010, cited by Chang & Trzmiel 2013).

Solutions

In terms of research theme:

• Promoting research on the requirements and demands of enterprises regarding the required professional competence of employees and the praxis-oriented curricula for certain fields. This helps to improve the current curricula at vocational institutions, also enterprise surveys supply the basis to develop training programmes according to CTM.
• Countries in ASEAN should promote research on TVET policy, particularly policies relating to the appropriate regulations on the extent, rights, and responsibilities of enterprises in cooperation with universities and vocational institutions in TVET and VTE.
• Fostering research on building the regional standards in the field of TVET and on E-learning of TVET.
• Promoting research on application of green technologies in TVET.
• In terms of organization and supporting:
• The countries should be aware of the significance of research and increase the funding for fields of research, in particular in the field of TVET and VTE.
• The regional and international educational organizations should continuously support the research programmes of the countries regarding policy review, application of green technologies in TVET and implementation of CTM. The support in funding, for sharing the experience from international experts and in organizing and conducting research is needed.
• The regional organizations and nations should establish more research projects, which gather the regional and national experts and researchers to focus on research with the themes mentioned above.
• The ‘call for papers’ of TVET@Asia should be frequently distributed to every educational institute in Asia as well as outside this region to stimulate contribution from the regional and international researchers to foster the development of TVET and VTE as a self-reliant scientific field, to find more effective solutions for TVET Asia and ASEAN and to enhance the impact factor of this instrument.

3 Conclusion

The paper suggests ten groups of solutions for improving the quality of TVET ASEAN based on the issues of TVET in ASEAN in the period of economic integration. In particular, some following solutions are emphasized and highly recommended:

• Enhancing training cooperation between vocational institutions and enterprises through implementing CTM, which can be medium-term or long-term, structured training programmes co-developed and carried out by vocational institutions and enterprises;
• Improving the quality of in-school teachers and in-company teachers through reinforcing the participation of enterprises in training of pre-service and in-service vocational teachers, developing the regional/national standards of in-school teachers and in-company instructors;
• Promoting policy review regarding investment/finance for TVET and legally binding regulations on extent, rights, and responsibilities of enterprises in collaboration with vocational training institutes and universities for technology and education in VET and TVET.
• Developing sets of standards in TVET (regional/national occupational skill standards, regional/national standards of TVET accreditation, standards for in-school and in-company teachers as mentioned above);
• Establishing regional/national standard vocational institutions and regional/national centers of TVET Accreditation;
• Developing the synchronization of regional qualification frameworks with the idea of trying to build a Regional Vocational Qualification Framework (RVQF) besides trying to find the consensus on the RQF and the AQRF.

The assurance of regional TVET quality can contribute to helping countries overcome the barriers in the period of ASEAN economic integration. It requires unceasing efforts from the governments and regional political organizations.

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