It is widely acknowledged that the world of work is changing. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET), however, largely continues to follow a traditional model developed in the 19^th century which used to prepare youth for industrial work. As some economies in the Asia-Pacific are becoming knowledge-based, there is growing recognition of the mismatch between skills taught in TVET and skills needed in the labour markets. As a result, transferable skills are increasingly seen as a missing link between education and training and the world of work.

But what are transferable skills? There are different understandings and conceptualizations of these skills across countries but in general transferable skills refer to a number of important competencies (communication, problem-solving, collaboration skills, etc.) that can be learned and can help people to make transitions between education levels, education and the world of work, as well as within and between sectors. They are non-occupation specific skills that can give workers the comparative advantage in an increasingly interconnected and competitive world of work. 

To prepare students for the jobs of today and tomorrow, TVET, which has traditionally provided specific occupational skills for existing jobs, now needs to give more attention to improving students’ holistic development and pay more attention to developing their transferable skills for future jobs. This, however, can only be achieved if TVET policies clearly define transferable skills for the country context and set out clear guidelines for implementation. Despite a general agreement on the importance of transferable skills among most Asian countries, there is still a pressing need for clearly defining transferable skills and creating a shared understanding of these skills among all TVET stakeholders. Besides establishing clear policy guidelines, the challenge remains in aligning policies with curricula, pedagogies and assessment for transferable skills in TVET.

At implementation level, TVET teachers are the key in ensuring that students acquire the appropriate levels of transferable skills for their future occupations. Many TVET teachers in Asia, however, seem to lack understanding, skills, pedagogies and resources to effectively impart transferable skills in their students. In addition, in some Asian countries TVET can be found in different streams and at different education levels which results in some disagreement between the general education teachers and the TVET teachers on the relative responsibility of each group for teaching transferable skills. Clear policy guidelines are, therefore, instrumental in addressing this and other issues related to transferable skills. 

Despite existing challenges, there are some examples of the ways in which some Asian countries conceptualized transferable skills in their TVET and VTE policies, and there are examples of some promising initiatives of teaching and learning of these skills. The 3^rd issue of TVET@Asia gives an insight into these developments and explores other skill-related topics. The issue is based on selected country reports prepared for a regional study entitled “Transferable Skills in TVET: Policy Implications”, which is the result of a collaboration between UNESCO Bangkok and the Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP), as well as additional submissions. It is hoped that the issue will contribute to broadening the knowledge base on skills, and particularly transferable skills, in Asia and provide the basis for further research in this area.

The Editors of Issue 3

Barbara Trzmiel, Cheol Hee Kim, Roslin Brennan Kemmis, Matthias Becker

Citation

Trzmiel, B., Hee Kim, C., Brennan Kemmis, R., & Becker, M. (2014). Editorial Issue 3: Transferable skills in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and vocational teacher education (VTE): Policies and implementation. In: TVET@Asia, issue 3, 1-2. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue3/editorial_tvet3.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2014).

Apprenticeships can be seen as the ultimate in co-operation between TVET providers and industry as they are based on a combination of work and study. They provide appropriate skills for companies and also all-round occupational and generic skills, as well as providing a tried and tested means of moving young people into the full-time labour market. However there are many different actual and potential models of apprenticeship, which can be confusing for countries looking to begin or re-develop an apprenticeship system. This paper uses part of the work undertaken for a project funded by the International Labour Organization and the World Bank to compare and contrast apprenticeship systems in 11 countries, for the purpose of drawing out some principles of good practice. The project was undertaken to provide suggestions for the process of reform of the Indian apprenticeship system (Planning Commission 2009).

Experiences of other countries, both in the developed and the developing world, indicate that apprenticeship systems cannot be transplanted among countries; however, key features of countries’ systems can be identified and sensitively developed in other countries. The paper explains how an international comparative study arrived at principles for good practice.

In the project, eleven individual country case studies, based on reports, literature and stakeholder comment, were produced by a team of national experts, and subjected to a cross-case analysis to extract these principles. The use of national experts was judged to be more effective than having people write on other countries’ systems. The latter method has proved in many instances to result in inaccurate reports, susceptibility to the influence of limited numbers of stakeholders and a lack of sophistication in analysing trends. The country case studies took into account agreed international benchmarks for describing, analysing and evaluating apprenticeships, based on the framework described in the recently-released memorandum by INAP, the International Network on Innovative Apprenticeship (INAP Commission 2012) and the framework developed by one of the authors in the International Encyclopedia of Education (Smith 2010). The countries were selected to cover a range of variables.

A cross-case analysis was undertaken which drew together data from the countries using a thematic approach and simple data display techniques (Miles & Huberman 1994). The analysis covered both systemic issues and ‘the life cycle of the apprentice’. The data were then further reduced to develop an identified set of principles of good practice in apprenticeship systems. These principles of good practice were then contextualised within a consideration of issues of ‘quality’, expansion and simplification strategies for apprenticeships and incentives for employers and apprentices.

1 Introduction

The project was commissioned by the International Labor Organization and the World Bank to contribute to Indian discussions about the reform of the apprenticeship system. India’s apprenticeship system will be a major contributor to its future growth but in comparison to, for example, Australia or Germany, its apprenticeship system is small (Ministry of Labour and Employment 2011), with only about 0.1% of the formal labour force involved in apprenticeships compared with up to 4% in some countries. The Indian labour force is the world’s second largest (Economist 2011) with 487.6 million workers. The agricultural sector employs most of the national workforce and is second in farm output worldwide. For the economy to continue to grow and expand, it is assumed that a large portion of the workforce will migrate from the primary sector (agriculture) to the secondary and tertiary sectors. However the skills sets that are required in both these sectors are quite different from those in the agricultural sector (ICRA Management Consulting 2010). This implies a large potential skill gap when such a migration occurs. India aims at a skilled workforce of 500 million by 2022 (Ministry of Labour and Employment 2010) and this is an extremely ambitious policy aspiration to which, it is anticipated, a major expansion of the apprenticeship system will contribute.

Some of the obvious challenges that confront the Indian government in its attempts to reform the apprenticeship system include the small size of the apprenticeship system, lack of alignment of expectations of employers and apprentices, uneven quality of curriculum, uneven participation in the apprenticeship system among socio-economic groups and other groupings, lack of confidence in the skills of graduates of the system and the difficulties associated with a predominantly informal economy (Planning Commission Sub Committee 2009). There is also concern about an over-complexity of regulation, the under-representation of women and minority groups in apprenticeships, and the availability and quality of sufficient trainers (ILO and OECD 2011). Under these conditions international good practice principles derived from this research are highly relevant.

As part of the project method, a number of international country case studies were written specifically for the project, which were then analysed by the authors of this paper. The aim of the cross-case analysis was to develop good practice principles and features of a ‘model apprenticeship system’ which were then utilised, following an analysis of the Indian system, to suggest possible options for the Indian system. This paper, however, focuses only on the international comparison and the good practice principles and not on the Indian system or the proposals for reform of the Indian system that have been presented (2012). The research question for the phase of the project reported on in this paper is ‘What are the good practice features internationally that provide principles of good practice in apprenticeship systems?’

2 Background and literature review

Apprenticeship is an institution which, for centuries, has successfully effected entry into working life for young people, and has also been responsible for the maintenance of the skills base of many national economies. Apprenticeships began in medieval times, and perhaps before that in some countries, when young people went to live in their masters’ houses to learn trades, over a period of up to seven years. Although apprenticeships have become less demanding of both master and apprentice, they have survived in many countries over the centuries (Lane 1996).

The essential components of a formal apprenticeship are generally understood to be:

• a training regime set up by, or with the approval of, governments;
• a combination of off and on the job training;
• the assumption of responsibility by the employer for the development of the apprentice;
• The award of a qualification and/or licence and/or some other recognition that enables an occupation to be practised independently once the apprenticeship is successfully completed.

In modern economies, apprenticeships are regarded as important ways of developing skills in the workforce along with their perceived role in reducing youth unemployment. After a period of neglect, apprenticeships have recently returned to centre-stage and they are beginning to take a more prominent role in the way that countries manage their education, training and labour markets (Rauner & Smith 2010).

However, different countries have different expectations of apprenticeships and therefore regulate and manage their apprenticeship systems in different ways (Smith 2010) and thus it is difficult directly to compare systems or to transplant ideas from one country to another.

3 Method

Eleven country case studies of their respective apprenticeship systems were commissioned (Table 1). One was written by one of the authors of this paper and the remainder by nine invited experts, who wrote about countries where they were located (n=8) or with which they were familiar (n=2). One expert wrote about two countries. The countries were selected to cover a range of variables: stages of development, size and reputation of apprenticeship system, global location to ensure that all continents were covered. Some of the selections were suggested by the funding bodies and others were added by the researchers. India was included in the initial case studies to allow comparison with the Indian system from the commencement of the project. The findings from this comparison are the subject of a paper to be published by the International Labour Organization (Smith & Brennan Kemmis, forthcoming, 2013).

Table 1: Countries studied, by state of economic development

After considering other cross-national studies, it was decided that the use of case studies (Yin, 2009) written by national experts would be more effective than having the researchers themselves write on other countries’ systems. Experience has shown that the latter method has proved in many instances to result in inaccurate reports, it is susceptible to the influence of limited numbers of stakeholders and it is not possible to judge accurately the influence of the full range of contextual factors. To help ensure currency and quality, the country experts were requested to interview a senior government official in their country before finalising the writing-up, and also to submit their case study to an independent academic expert at another institution for review. These objectives were achieved, in some instances partially, in seven of the country case studies.

The purpose of the country case studies was firstly to obtain accurate and current information about countries’ apprenticeship systems written by people who had a deep understanding of the culture, politics and economics of the countries as well as the apprenticeship systems. It is well-recognised that apprenticeship systems need to grow from countries’ national economic and cultural contexts and cannot be transplanted as complete entities from one country to another. The second purpose was to obtain targeted information about key features and trends that could be used to develop good practice principles in apprenticeships.

The country case studies took into account agreed international benchmarks for describing, analysing and evaluating apprenticeships. These were the framework described in the recently-released memorandum by INAP, the International Network on Innovative Apprenticeship (INAP Commission 2012) and the framework developed by one of the authors in the International Encyclopedia of Education (Smith 2010). Based on these frameworks, the authors were requested to cover the following: a number of topics under major headings, each of which included up to ten sub-topics. These were as follows:

• Introductory paragraph about the country’s economic and education systems
• Nature of the apprenticeship system
• Occupational coverage
• Participation
• Training and assessment
• Participation of governments and other stakeholder groups (social partners)
• Major issues and learning points (what are the major issues facing apprenticeship in the researched countries and what has been the effectiveness of the policy developments?)

The headings proved more applicable to some countries than others. As simple examples of differences, some countries had more than one major apprenticeship system, and in some countries little official data were available. But all case studies were able to provide at least some information under each major heading, if not each minor heading.

A thematic cross-case analysis was then undertaken (Miles & Huberman 1994). For the cross-case analysis the following guidelines were used to develop the structures and headings:

• The format of the case study guidelines, which was itself developed partly from the project terms of reference but also informed by the following two documents:
  • The INAP memorandum on apprenticeship architecture;
  • Analysis of apprenticeships in the International Encyclopedia of Education (Smith 2010);
• The cross-country analysis in the European Commission report on apprenticeship supply (European Commission 2012); and
• An apprenticeship life-cycle model developed in an Australian study (Smith et al. 2009) to describe the progression through an apprenticeship for the individual apprentice.

However, some themes also arose from the data themselves (Stake 1995). Also, the researchers’ views on issues and policy developments were collated into a table.

The research question for this phase of the project and therefore for this paper is ‘What are good practice features internationally that provide a set of good practice principles for an apprenticeship system?’

4 Findings

The analysis showed that apprenticeship systems could often be grouped together into ‘bands’ in terms of individual features with each ‘band’ representing a cluster of similar characteristics. For example information relating to completion rates, involvement of social partners, payment of apprentices, and target age groups across the different case study countries tended to show distinct similarities and differences and allowed the researchers to develop the typologies discussed below. Two examples are provided below (Tables 2 and 3)

Table 2: Typology of availability of apprenticeships to adults

Table 3: Typology of employment status of apprentices

Such typologies are useful in describing the breadth of practices that occur across various apprenticeship systems across the case study countries. But the arrangements in the various typologies were often combined in different ways. So, for example, it was not possible to produce principles of good practice for a country at a particular stage of development, or for a country that wishes to open its system to adults. The reality is much more complex than that.

The paper proposes groups of good practice principles without proposing particular ‘mixes’ of features. In the discussion that follows, the findings from the cross case analysis are grouped into the following headings: Underlying principles, quality systems, provisions for apprentices and for employers, and expansion strategies.

4.1 Underlying principles

From the country data, underlying good practice principles were drawn out, grouped into four categories: occupational coverage, participation, national government structures and stakeholders. The principles are listed in Table 4. 

Table 4: Underlying principles for a model apprenticeship system

These principles address the major components of a system: who can participate, what is the coverage of the economy, what structures are in place, and which stakeholders are involved.

4.2  Quality systems

It became apparent when analysing the country case studies that good practice principles needed to have an underpinning concern for quality. In some cases, where apprenticeship systems were in their infancy or were historically very small, quality was not a primary consideration, but the need for quality was emphasised throughout. Apprenticeship systems involve many components: employment, training in the workplace, training at training providers, and administrative systems at different levels of government. To address these issues and to suggest strategies, derived from the country case studies, that increased and assured quality, the following points were suggested (Table 5). Instances of each of those were found in one or more of the country case studies.

An important contributor to quality is the provision of resources. Apprenticeship systems involve complex decisions about appropriate use of scarce funds, the relative contributions of governments, industry and individuals, and planning for the future so that financial commitment to the system remains appropriate should the system expand considerably.

Table 5: Systems to improve and maintain quality

The following principles for incentives to employers, training providers and individuals were suggested, derived from practices in the country case studies.

• Financial incentives for enterprises to participate, subject to monitoring of satisfactory performance including audits;
• Additional incentives for employers to employ disabled or disadvantaged people as apprentices;
• Public funding for training providers – wholly or partly funded for apprenticeship training – but could arguably be financed by student loans system;
• Discounted wages for apprentices (either a lower overall rate or non-payment while at off-the-job training), but within the discounted range, higher wages for mature aged people;
• Payment of social contributions for apprentices by the State; and
• Financial incentives to apprentices to complete their contracts and to employers who continue to employ their apprentices on completion.

4.3  Provisions for apprentices and employers

Despite government structures and stakeholder involvement, the basic participants in all apprenticeship systems are apprentices and employers. The ‘lifecycle’ model proposed by Smith et al (2009) focuses on this key relationship, following an apprentice through from recruitment to completion of the contract of training. In the current project, we listed a number of provisions for the apprentice and for the employer (Table 5) which the country experts had identified as good practice. While the table is divided into ‘apprentice’ and ‘employer’ it is apparent that systems that support the apprentice also assist the employer, and vice versa. For example, if there is a ‘fall-back’ system for apprentices whose employer can no longer afford to employ them, this eases pressure on employers and also makes them more willing to employ an apprentice in the first place.

Table 6: Good practice provisions for the apprentice and the employer

4.4  Expansion and simplification strategies

A number of expansion strategies were noted in the country case studies. These included the promotion of the ‘brand’ of apprenticeship by governments, particularly in countries where the status of apprenticeships is low. This often included promotion of apprenticeships as a valued school-leaving pathway with deep connections into secondary schools, and Education of secondary school and other careers staff about apprenticeships. It also included measures to make apprenticeships more attractive through providing pathways to higher level qualifications so that people do not feel the choice is final and through encouragement through industrial relations or other systems for apprentice qualifications to form the basis of recruitment to jobs and/or be rewarded with higher pay. Strategies to increase participation of minority groups both assisted those groups in their labour market outcomes and increased the numbers in apprenticeships. Finally, two of the countries (Australia and, at a later date, England) had introduced a system of third-party employers into the apprenticeship system so that not all apprentices had to be directly employed by an enterprise.

However, without due care being paid, a rapid expansion poses quality risks that are subsequently difficult to address. The experiences of countries trying to increase their apprenticeship rates suggest the following risks:

• A rapid increase can lead to quality problems.
• Employers may be persuaded to participate without being fully aware of their responsibilities.
• Completion rates may be low unless quality is properly managed.
• Rapid establishment in new occupational areas without a tradition of formal training can lead to the risk of low-quality qualifications and workplace curriculum which can be hard to shift later, leading either to persistent negative perceptions of the occupation and the apprenticeship, or to rapid and confusing policy shifts to address the problem.
• The establishment of ‘differently-badged’ systems should be avoided, as it can lead to the newer systems being viewed as inferior, and such perceptions are difficult to shift subsequently (examples: traineeships in Australia, ’modern apprenticeships’ in England).
• Extensive stakeholder involvement is vital.

Therefore countries looking to expand their systems need to be aware of these risks, and while each country is unique, other countries’ experiences can provide useful guidance.

Simplification is another important process for apprenticeship systems which is often allied to expansion because extremely complex systems cannot be scaled up. The country case studies illustrated the following processes which they had used, or which it was evident were needed, to simplify systems.

• Harmonisation across jurisdictions (states and provinces) to enhance mobility and improve understanding of systems.
• Consistency of contract periods (at least no more than two or three set lengths).
• Removal of parallel systems with the same country where feasible; or if not, clear communication processes.

Most of the case study countries were involved in exercises to try to reduce the differences among jurisdictions, in particular.

5 Conclusion

The features mentioned in this paper could be considered by any national or provincial government seeking to review or reform its apprenticeship system, in conjunction with industry representatives. For the scholarly study of apprenticeships, the study provides a set of good practice principles for examining apprenticeship systems. A particular feature of the principles is the need to attend to the quality and relevance of training by TVET providers. The nexus between the principles of good practice and quality of training is undeniable but often overlooked in policy discussions, as the latter often focus on employment aspects. Another unique feature of the principles of good practice is the explicit attention paid to expansion strategies and the risks that such expansion pose for all those involved in administering, developing and participating in apprenticeships.

Acknowledgements: The authors would like to acknowledge the authors of the country case studies: Dr Linda Miller, Dr AbouBakr Abdeen Badawi, Dr M’hamed Dif, Dr Andreas Saniter and Dr Ludger Deitmer, Dr Bibuthi Roy, Nicolas Serriere, Dr Salim Akoojee, Associate Professor Ozlem Unluhisarcikli, and Dr Robert Lerman.

References

Economist (2011): India’s economy: the half-finished revolution. Online: http://www.economist.com/node/18986387   (retrieved 5.4.2013).

European Commission (2012): Apprenticeship Supply in the Member States of the European Union. Final report. European Commission. Luxembourg.

ICRA Management Consulting Services Limited (2010): The Skill Development Landscape in India and Implementing Quality Skills Training. Paper prepared for the 3rd Global Skills Summit of the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry. Online:  http://www.ficci.com/SPdocument/20073/IMaCS.pdf   (retrieved 10.4.2013).  

International Labour Organization and OECD (2011): G20 Country Policy Briefs: India, for G20 Meeting of Labour and Employment Ministers, 26-27 September. Paris.

INAP Commission (2012): Memorandum: An Architecture for Modern Apprenticeships – Standards for Structure, Organisation and Management. University of Zurich, Zurich.

Lane, Joan (1996): Apprenticeship in England, 1600-1914. London: UCL Press.

Miles, M. & Huberman, M. (1994): Qualitative Data Analysis. 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ministry of Labour and Employment (2011): Trade Apprenticeship Training in India, 2009. Ministry of Labour and Employment, New Delhi.

Ministry of Labour and Employment (2010): Annual Report 2008-2009. Online: Ministry of Labour and Employment, New Delhi.

Planning Commission Sub Committee on Re-modelling India’s Apprenticeship Regime (2009): Report and Recommendations. New Delhi.

Rauner, F. & Smith, E. (eds.) (2010): Rediscovering Apprenticeship: Research Findings of the International Network on Innovative Apprenticeship. Dordrecht: Springer.

Smith, E. (2010): “Apprenticeships”. In Peterson, P., McGaw, B., & Baker, E. (eds.): International Encyclopedia of Education. 3rd edn, Vol. 8. Oxford: Elsevier, 312-319.

Smith, E., Comyn, P., Brennan Kemmis, R., & Smith, A. (2009): High Quality Traineeships: Identifying What Works. NCVER, Adelaide.

Smith, E. & Brennan Kemmis, R. (2013, forthcoming): Possible futures for the Indian apprenticeship system. Options paper for India. Geneva: ILO.

Stake, R. (1995): The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Yin, R. (2009): Case Study Research. 4th edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Citation

Smith, E. & Brennan Kemmis, R. (2013). Good practice principles in apprenticeship systems: An international study. In: TVET@Asia, issue 1, 1-12. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue1/smith_brennan-kemmis_tvet1.pdf (retrieved 30.5.2013).

This article is based on research and detailed empirical work that has been conducted in Australia in the area of transferable skills. The article will review the issues related to transferable skills in the vocational education and training (VET) sector from a historical perspective. Included in the discus­sion are details of recent and current policy development. A commentary is provided on many of the challenges of policy implementation in the current environment. There has been considerable re­search into this issue in Australia, and it is hoped that this article will assist in a broader understanding of the issues surrounding transferable skills.

1 Introduction

In Australia, the discussion about transferable skills has been taking place for a number of years in all educational sectors. There have been a number of high level reviews and extensive consultations with industry and other VET stakeholders. Currently, transferable skills are referred to as employability skills[1] . However they are also now located within a broader category of skills referred to as foundation skills that describe a combination of language, literacy and numeracy skills and other skills required to engage successfully in vocational activities. It is acknowledged that these skills are manifested differently depending on technical and discipline-specific context. The details of research identifying this manifestation will be discussed in more detail.

As illustrated in Figure 1, the Core Skills for Work (CSfW) Framework[2] (previously Employability Skills Framework) outlines three sets of inter-related skills (employability skills, technical or discipline specific skills and core language, literacy and numeracy skills), as well as a range of features, expectations and requirements of the surrounding context, which contribute to work performance. Examples of context include the level of qualification, the type of work (supervisory, strategic or operational), licensing requirements of the industry, industry culture, industrial relation laws and enterprise requirements. CSfW encompasses both employability skills and aspects of the context which impact upon an individual’s ability to develop and demonstrate these skills. Technical or discipline specific skills are detailed in Training Packages and school and higher education curricula, while the core language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) skills of reading, writing, oral communication, numeracy and learning are addressed in the Australian Core Skills Framework. (Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR), 2012, 4).

Figure 1: Employability Skills in context (DEEWR, 2012, 5

 It is very much the case that the topic of transferable skills is located in a complex environment of sometimes competing policy initiatives. Some examples of these complex policy factors are the interests of industry bodies, funding bodies, VET practitioners and students. It is also the case that there are inherent tensions in the VET system between technical expertise and transferable skill development that mitigates against a clear understanding of what transferable skills actually are and how they are to be taught, assessed and reported.

2 The concept of transferable skills in VET and vocational teacher[3] education (VTE) policies

2.1 Australia’s national policy on VTE

Teachers and trainers working in the VET system in Australia who deliver nationally accredited training must have as a minimum qualification Certificate IV in Training and Assessment (TAE4110 2012). As is the case with all qualifications in the VET system, this qualification includes a list of the employability skills graduates will demonstrate, and a list of the industry/ enterprise requirements. These are in addition to a set of competencies that focus on the technical vocational aspects of the qualification.

All these requirements are defined in a related training package[4] , including the explicit description of the employability skills. Whilst these skills are mandated in this training package, there is a lot of discussion about the effectiveness of the embedding process and the quality of the teaching and assessing of the employability skills. There is also a lot of discussion about the extent to which teachers and trainers are adequately prepared to deal with this complex topic and how effectively the process of embedding these skills is carried out. It is also contingent on how clearly and concisely these skills are written into the respective training packages. Future policy initiatives will have to address these well-documented and researched issues.

The question that follows from the VTE policy that mandates the minimum qualification for VET practitioners in Australia is: Does this policy emphasise the importance of enhancing the development of transferable skills through VET practitioner education programs? An investigation shows that only one very small item of emphasis can be found in the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment. The compulsory components of this qualification include ten units of competencies, of which only one, Provide Work Skills Instruction, gives any such emphasis. A graduate of this unit must be able to Use measures to ensure learners are acquiring and can use technical and generic skills[5] and knowledge. (Australian Government, 2013). Perhaps it is not surprising then, that research in Australia has identified a general dissatisfaction on the part of many stakeholders with the standard of professional development of VET practitioners in this area.

In research conducted in 2003, Clayton et alfound that despite the general consensus that transferable skills are valuable, practitioners are unclear as to how they should be assessed. Other findings show that VET practitioners also require further professional development support in order that their own skills, knowledge and abilities are sufficient to enable them to deliver and assess transferable skills.

In more recent research conducted by the Commonwealth of Australia in 2012, it was found that industry bodies who advocated the need for significant reform raised a variety of concerns including an improved capability of VET practitioners (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012(a)).

Whilst the regulated national standard is established at the Certificate IV level, a number of diploma and bachelor degree level programs are also offered in Australia for VET practitioners. The place these qualifications hold in terms of the Australian Qualifications Framework can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Australian Qualifications Framework
(Source: Australian Qualifications Framework Council, 2013. Australian Qualifications Framework, 2nd edition, January 2013)

The diploma and bachelor qualifications are generally offered with advanced standing for entrants’ existing vocational skills and qualifications. Therefore, the programs are generally shorter in length than those in other sectors of education such as lower primary, middle and secondary schools. An analysis of the content of three such bachelor degrees across Australia shows that two make some reference to graduates developing the ability to teach and/or assess transferable skills. The first of these two makes explicit reference to the development of knowledge by incorporating performative learning, situational learning, problem-based learning and workplace learning; (Charles Sturt University, 2011a) and one learning outcome of Using the Core Skills Framework (Charles Sturt University 2014b).

The second bachelor degree identified includes subjects entitled Literacy at Work (Griffith University, 2013a) and Lifelong Learning and Work (Griffith University, 2013b). Whilst these could be seen as aligning with some transferable skills, no specific reference to any of the transferable skills frameworks existing in Australia are made. In addition, there are referen­ces that could be construed as developing VET practitioners’ ability to teach and assess transferable skills. For example, graduates must be able to demonstrate an under­standing of the significance of the need for alignment of the intent, enactments and outcomes of contemporary educational issues and initiatives in adult and vocational education (Griffith University, 2013b). Transferable skills in the form of the variety of frameworks identified in Australia, for example the Core Skills Framework, may fit well within these parameters.

To conclude, the evidence shows a lack of explicit reference to transferable skills as an area for VET practitioner development. It is reasonable to say that Australia does not emphasise the importance of teacher training including pedagogical skills necessary for enhancing the development of transferable skills.

2.2 Practical vocational skills held by VET trainers and assessors

The Australian Vocational Education and Training Quality Framework (VQF) was created through legislation and it includes standards for employment as a vocational trainer and assessor. The Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA) (2013) states that in order to meet these standards a person must have the relevant vocational competencies at least to the level being delivered or assessed and demonstrate current industry skills directly relevant to the training/assessment being undertaken.

This ensures that VET practitioners must hold practical vocational skills through experiences gained in the world of work. This is a very important, and strongly regulated, feature of VET in Australia. It is likely to be strengthened in future VET developments.

The most commonly used instrument for teaching and assessing in VET is a training package related to a specific industry area. The Construction and Property Services Industry Skills Council in Australia states that people who are considered eligible to deliver and assess quali­fi­cations from the construction, plumbing and services training package, must have the following minimum competency, recognition and experience: 

• formal recognition of competency at least to the level being assessed;
• relevant industry experience, that is, workplace experience within the last two years in the competency area being delivered;
• relevant occupational registration or licensing in areas where this is a regulatory requirement (Australian Government, 2012).

Although this requirement has been established, research indicates that there is some dissatisfaction with its implementation. It is unclear to what extent the industry currency of trainers and assessors is a factor in this dissatisfaction, though it is understood to be a factor (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012).

The fact that VET practitioners are dual professionals (ASQA, 2013) presents a significant challenge. They must hold their industrial currency and qualification, as well as training and assessing currency and qualification. There are issues concerning who is responsible to ensure that these requirements are met. Some are of the opinion that the individual VET practitioner has the responsibility, whilst others consider that the employing body has the responsibility to facilitate this requirement. In this zone of unclear delineation of responsibility it is often the case that this requirement is overlooked or ignored.

The VQF regulatory framework addresses this dilemma to some extent. The requirement to demonstrate that practitioners continue to develop their VET knowledge and skills as well as their industry currency is embedded in the standards. It is clear that ensuring that the ‘dual professionalism’ can be demonstrated is the legal responsibility of the educational institution offering qualifications. It is expected that this aspect of the framework will be strengthened in future versions.

A requirement for continued professional development is a feature of many industries in Australia, such as plumbing and electrical services. Although there is currently no stipulation of volume or type of such development in VET, there is the need to demonstrate that it is continu­ally undertaken. There is considerable contested discussion on whether a benchmark for professional development should be set for VET trainers and assessors (Guthrie, 2010). A number of professional associations exist in Australia for VET practitioners. Membership of these is voluntary and generally not aligned to employment requirements.

Clayton et al (2003) made an important recommendation in their research. They found that not only business and industry, but also the entire Australian community will benefit if trans­ferable skills can be successfully foregrounded in VET. However, substantial investment in the professional development of Australian VET practitioners is a necessary pre-condition for this achievement (Clayton, et al 2003). This recommendation remains true as an aspiration for VET in Australia in 2014.

2.3 Level of implementation of transferable skills

As mentioned earlier, transferable skills have played a significant role in the recent history of Australian VET. The subject of transferable skills featured in key reports that helped to shape Australian VET, in particular the Finn (AEC 1991), Carmichael (1992) and Mayer (AEC/ MOVEET 1992) reports. Key competencies “for effective participation in emerging forms of work and work organisation” (AEC/MOVEET 1992) were supposed to be developed along­side technical or vocational skills in Australia’s competency-based VET system. In 2002, the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI) and the Business Council of Austra­lia proposed an Employability Skills Framework (Core Skills for Work Framework since 2013) to replace the key competencies. Eight skills are identified in the framework: (1) com­mu­ni­cation, (2) teamwork, (3) problem-solving, (4) initiative and enterprise, (5) planning and organising, (6) self-management, (7) learning; and (8) technology.

In 2005, the National Quality Council (NQC) endorsed the replacement of key competencies by employability skills in VET. Since that time more work has been done on transferable skills frameworks in the schooling and higher education sectors as well as in VET. Transferable skills relevant to VET appear in the Australian Core Skills Framework, which has a literacy and numeracy focus, while the Australian Qualifications Framework, which applies to qualifications in both the VET and higher education sectors, includes transferable skills.

Although the concept of transferable skills has been welcomed by most VET stakeholders, a number of problems relating to implementation have become apparent after nearly two decades of transferable skills development, assessment and reporting. A report by the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2012) identified concerns with the current approach to transferable skills, including:

• differing definitions, interpretations and approaches used across sectors, and even within sectors, which create confusion about expectations;
• failure to recognise the context-dependent nature of employability skills and impact of the context upon these skills;
• incorrect assumptions that competence is automatically transferable;
• lack of explicit focus on employability skills in workplaces and in education and training
• insufficient confidence and/or capability of teachers and trainers to address these skills
• the difficulty of measuring, assessing and reporting on employability skills. (DEEWR 2012, 5-6).

The Employability Skills Framework (DEEWR, 2012) seeks to address these issues. It stresses explicitness in relation to employability skills and envisages achieving this overarching goal in four ways. Firstly, developers of training packages, curriculum and programs will be encouraged to “clearly articulate the employability skills required for certain occupations or careers or at particular points in careers development” (2012, 14). Secondly, trainers and teachers will be expected to “more explicitly address the development of these skills in learners” (2012, 14). Thirdly, individuals should be in a position to articulate the employability skills they possess and those they would like to develop. Finally, the framework provides a common reference point for developers of education, training and employment services and products.

The first and second of these strategies highlight particular challenges in implementing transferable skills in Australian VET. While the importance of employability skills and the need for their development has been recognised by stakeholders, training packages have not explicitly identified the transferable components alongside the vocational or technical skills. Rather, specification of vocational skills and knowledge was supposed to embed employability skills so that the development of vocational skills automatically entailed acquisition of employability skills. Units of competency contained a component entitled Employability Skills Information and for all units the information was the same: This unit contains employability skills. This limited guidance has had consequences for the level of implementation of transferable skills in Australia.

The National Skills Standards Council (NSSC) guidelines for the development of training packages introduced in 2012 addressed the goal of making employability skills explicit. According to these guidelines, units of competency must now contain a section on foundation skills (language, literacy, numeracy and employability skills). This policy document states that training package developers must ensure that foundation skills are explicit and recognisable within the training package (Commonwealth of Australia, 2012). These requirements are expressed within the foundation skills field of the unit of competency template. Training packages reflecting these guidelines are currently being phased in.

The second strategy for addressing transferable skill development concerns the role of trainers and educators. These practitioners generally base their work on translating the requirements of training packages into training programs and assessments. While these transferable skills have not been specified in training packages in the past in Australia it was unlikely practitioners would place a lot of emphasis on transferable skills, particularly in an environment where commercial pressures are on providers to teach no more than what is explicitly set out in the training packages.

The Australian government and other stakeholders have been aware that practitioners require support to address employability skills development. Resources for trainers and assessors such as the Department of Education, Science and Training’s (DEST) Employability Skills: From Framework to Practice (2006) set out principles that practitioners can use to promote the development of employability skills. According to this resource, certain pedagogical approaches foster specific employability skills (see Table 1).

Table 1:     Learning approaches and employability skills

Source: Adapted from DEST (2006), 46-47.

It is interesting to note that this kind of specific pedagogical advice is not included in the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment, the mandated minimum qualification for VET teachers in Australia.

3 Implications for policy and practice

Australia had a change of government on 7^th September 2013 and the following possible policy directions and associated practices must be understood within this context.

In regard to transferable skills in VET, there was an overarching policy commitment through the 10-year National Foundation Skills Strategy building around a shared vision for a productive and inclusive Australia. This Strategy had been developed over a number of years and it is useful to articulate its dimensions as it may be used to inform the policy directions of the current new government. In this Strategy, foundation skills are defined as the combination of English language, literacy and numeracy (LLN) – listening, speaking, reading, writing, digital literacy and use of mathematical ideas; and employability skills, such as collabo­ration, problem solving, self-management, learning and information and communication technology (ICT) skills required for participation in modern workplaces and contemporary life.

Foundation skills development includes both skills acquisition and the critical application of these skills in multiple environments for multiple purposes. Foundation skills are fundamental to participation in the workplace, the community and adult education and training. (Standing Committee on Tertiary Education, Skills and Employment, 2102, 2)

The Strategy came with a large number of suggested policy actions and practice implications that were then circulated for consultation. It remains to be seen which if any of these policy recommendations will be adopted by the new government. The previous government devoted a lot of time, attention and consultation space to the topic of employability skills.

As part of this policy commitment a high level committee was formed to supervise phase 1 of the employability skills project. The then government was committed to funding the development of a new framework that was to be called the Core Skills for Employment Framework. The consulting group Ithica produced its final report in January 2012: Employability Skills Framework – Stage 1: Final Report (Department of Education, Employ­ment and Workplace Relations, 2012). This report was based on extensive consultations with approximately 700 people and groups across Australia.

“Based on extensive consultation carried out in this first stage of the Framework development, we recommend that the Framework focus specifically on ‘the non-technical skills and knowledge necessary for effective participation in the workforce’ (i.e. employability skills), as distinct from those required more broadly in society. Parti­ci­pation in the workforce could be as an employee, an employer, as a self-employed worker, or a volunteer.” (DEEWR, 2012, 4).

The Committee advising the government made six recommendations[6]which focus specifically on non-technical skills and knowledge to equip people for participation in the world of work; the need for an agreed language around employability skills and the framework; the importance of having a developmental framework and not a static one; and the fact that the framework should not be job specific. These recommendations have not yet been translated into policy action and it is not certain how the new government will react to these. However, there has been persistent and ongoing interest in the concept of employability skills and their importance for the development of qualities such as innovation, productivity and creativity beyond the exigencies of day-to-day work.

For that reason, very training package in Australia contains a section on employability skills and it is the expectation that teachers and trainers will embed these in their teaching and assessment practices. Every training package contains an employability skills summary for each qualification issued in Australia. Training packages are mandatory and therefore employ­ability skills are seen as a necessary component of teaching, training, assessing and reporting.

4 Key findings

In this uncharted and complex policy area a number of issues remain clear irrespective of political persuasions.

The key findings from this study are:

1. Employability skills are regarded by all parties as crucial for the increasing productivity and profitability of the Australian economy;
2. The concept of transferable skills is and has been enthusiastically embraced by the VET sector in Australia;
3. There is a policy commitment to create circumstances under which these transferable skills can be taught, assessed and reported;
4. All sectors of the country agree on the importance of these skills and the role they play in building productivity and international competitiveness;
5. There is a lot of interest and encouragement for the development of transferable skills coming from industry. Prominent business and industry groups have suggested that employability skills need to be more explicitly taught, assessed and reported;
6. Given that employability skills are sometimes best learnt on the job, there is a potential new role for employers in the development of these skills;
7. All Training Packages in Australia have transferable skills embedded into them. Therefore, the policy expectation is that teachers will teach, assess and report on them as part of the student’s results on completion of an individual unit within the qualification being studied;
8. There is no common language for discussing the concepts underlying employability skills and the debate is often very fuzzy;
9. There is little teacher preparation or professional development concerning transferable skills, and a number of reports have explicitly identified the fact that the whole process is stalled at the point of implementation;
10. VET teachers are technical experts in their own discipline areas and are not always well prepared to interpret associated transferable skills and to implement teaching strategies that ensure the development of these skills in their students;
11. There is an inherent tension in the VET system between the highly specified and tangible articulation of the skills to be learnt in a technical area and the intangible and difficult to specify and identify transferable skills;
12. Transferable skills are context specific and each industry area requires a different mix of these skills. This adds to the complexity and sometimes creates confusion in the minds of the VET teachers.

5 Conclusion

The importance of, and commitment to, the development of transferable skills in VET have been endorsed by the majority of stakeholders in Australia. Research conducted over a number of decades has informed Australia’s current position. Further research in this area will continue to inform and enrich the debate in regard to policy and practice. 

In order to gain the most benefit globally from this research, the need for trans-regional and intra-regional collaborations are essential. Australia looks forward to continuing to be a part of the Regional Cooperation Platform (RCP)[7] investing effort in this aspect of VET. The possible benefits of this contribution, not only to business and industry, but also the entire regio­nal community, will be significant.

References

Australian Education Council/Ministers of Vocational Education, Employment and Training (1992). Putting general education together (The Mayer report). Canberra, AGPS.

Australian Education Council Review Committee (1991). Young people’s participation in post-compulsory education and training: report of the AEC Review Committee. Canberra, AGPS.

Australian Government (2012). CPC08 – Construction, Plumbing and Services Training Package (Release 8.0). Online: http://training.gov.au/Training/Details/CPC08 (retrieved 14.09.2013).

Australian Government (n.d.). TAEDL301A Certificate IV in Training and Assessment. Online: http://training.gov.au/Training/Details/TAEDEL301A (retrieved 14.09.2013).

Australian Skills Quality Authority (2013). National VET regulations, VET Quality Frame­work. Online: http://www.asqa.gov.au/about-asqa/national-vet-regulation/vet-quality-framework.html (retrieved 14.09.2013).

Charles Sturt University. 2011. Handbook EEL320 Learning Theories for Post Compulsory Education. Online: http://www.csu.edu.au/handbook/handbook11/subjects/EEL320.html (retrieved 14.09.2013).

Charles Sturt University (2014). Handbook EPT327 Effective Teaching in VET. Online: http://www.csu.edu.au/handbook/subjects/EPT327.html (retrieved 14.09.2013).

Clayton, B.; Blom K.; Meyers, D., & Bateman, A. (2003). Assessing and Certifying Generic Skills. What is happening in vocational education and training? Australian National Training Authority, Australia.

Commonwealth of Australia (2012a). National Skills Standards Council Review of the standards for the regulation of vocational education and training analysis of submissions. Canberra: AGPS

Commonwealth of Australia (2012b).Standards for NVR Registered Training Organisations 2012. http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/F2013L00167 (retrieved 14.09.2013).

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) (2012) (retrieved 14.09.2013).. Employability Skills Framework, Stage 1 Final Report. Australian Government: Canberra.

Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) (20006). Employability skills from framework to practice. Commonwealth of Australia.

Griffith University (2013). Griffith Portal Course profile(retrieved 14.09.2013).s, Literacy at Work. 3015EDN – Sem 1 2013 – Mt Gravatt Campus – Mixed Mode. Online: https://courseprofile.secure.griffith.edu.au/student_section_loader.php?section=2&profileId=70256(retrieved 14.09.2013).

http://www.innovation.gov.au/skills/CoreSkillsForWorkFramework/Documents/CSWF-Framework.pdf

Citation

Brennan Kemmis, R., Hodge, S., & Bowden, A. (2014). Transferable skills in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET): Implications for TVET teacher policies in Australia. In: TVET@Asia, issue 3, 1-13. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue3/brennan-kemmis_etal_tvet3.pdf (retrieved 30.06.2014).