Indonesia has been grappling with complex economic and cultural interdependencies that have, for many generations, seriously hampered its economic and social growth. This unfortunate situation has been brought about by the largely colonially imposed Further Education Framework, which is now widely regarded as being culturally unfit for purpose. Government records show that there have been many failed attempts to redress this issue, but these many well-intentioned International aid educational interventions have been unable to engage with what seems, at times, to be an insurmountable plethora of challenges. A new vision of emancipated learning, known as Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM), is aimed at crafting a more de-centralised, localised and industry-based response to skills development in Indonesia. However, it must be noted that MBKM’s acceptance has not been universal, with many stakeholders questioning the policy’s implementation, motives and ongoing sustainability. This paper aims to closely analyse how MBKM has been accepted up to this point and examine its current impact across the Indonesian FET sector. It is anticipated that this analysis will allow a better understanding of the impacts of the implementation of MBKM, and clearly define the potential challenges and opportunities which will be faced by educational institutions as they go about implementing this radically different policy initiative.

Keywords: Further Education and Training, Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka, Educational reform, Experiential education, Industry and Academic Institution cooperation

1        Introduction

In recent years, the landscape of Further Education in Indonesia has undergone a profound transformation with the introduction of the Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM) policy. This initiative, spearheaded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, represents a bold departure from traditional Indonesian educational paradigms (Lhutfi & Mardiani 2020). MBKM, which translates to “Independent Campus” in English, is what some consider a visionary educational reform initiative that aims to revolutionize the way Indonesian students can access, experience and benefit from Further Education. It is of interest that this ambitious policy has garnered significant attention not only within Indonesia but also in some neighboring countries and global education communities (Afriansyah et al. 2022).

MBKM is rooted in the belief that education should be a dynamic, inclusive and liberating experience, enabling students to harness their full potential and be capable of involvement in the drive for societal progress (Defrizal et al. 2022). This educational paradigm shift seeks to empower students by granting them greater autonomy and flexibility in shaping their academic journeys (ibid.). It is driven by the recognition that the traditional, one-size-fits-all approach in Further Education and Training may not fully meet the diverse needs, interests and aspirations of today’s learners(Fairman & Voak 2023). That said, Maurer et al., opine that education and training interventions in low- and middle-income countries can only be understood within the broader postcolonial context; in other words, existing political and economic structures and dominant cultural ideas in these countries still reflect the power structures of the colonial period (Maurer et al. 2023). In this respect, the central tenets of MBKM are focused on experiential learning, industry engagement and the democratization of educational opportunities. Working under the aegis of this policy, students are encouraged to explore learning pathways that align with their talents and interests, and they can experience a blurring of the lines between classroom and real-world experiences (Sobri et al. 2023). Students can engage in internships, independent research, community service, student exchange programs, entrepreneurship ventures, and work-related project-based learning. This multifaceted approach aims to bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills, better preparing graduates for the demands of the modern job market (Sobri et al. 2023). This is an approach that is gaining universal acceptance across the Further Education and Training sector, whilst also drawing some criticism. Wheelahan et al. (2022), for instance, posit that the commodification of skill as a resource which is then traded in markets is related to Marx’s fetishisation of commodities more broadly. Keeping the above in mind, this article focuses the “lens” on the Indonesian Further Education sector whilst at the same time acknowledging the current and expansive literature on skills formation internationally.

Institutional autonomy and collaboration with industries are key pillars of MBKM. In keeping with this idea, educational institutions have been granted more freedom to design and manage academic programs that cater to their students’ needs, whilst the forging of partnerships with various sectors of the economy gives direction and industrial relevance to their curricula (Fairman & Voak 2023). Indeed, in this way, industries, businesses and non-governmental organizations can play an active role in shaping their coursework, providing mentorship, and offering opportunities to students to gain real-world experience (Lhutfi & Mardiani 2020). This symbiotic relationship between Academia and Industry is seen as a pragmatic means to produce a workforce that is not only academically competent but also industry-ready and adaptable across a range of workplaces. This introduction of the policy of MBKM reflects the Indonesian government’s commitment to fostering a knowledge-based economy and preparing its youth for the challenges and opportunities of the 21^st century (Fawaid et al. 2022). It recognizes the importance of aligning Higher Education with the rapidly evolving landscape of increased technological developments, together with the organizational demands relevant to expanding globalization and an understanding of recent industry advancements (Voak et al. 2023). Furthermore, MBKM aligns with Indonesia’s broader aspirations for balanced National socio-economic development and National global competitiveness.

As a relatively new policy initiative, MBKM has generated significant interest and debate among educators, policymakers, researchers and students. The growing recognition of its potential to reshape the educational landscape and to empower students to take ownership of their learning journeys has ignited wide discussions about its implementation, challenges and possible long-term impacts. This article attempts a comprehensive exploration of MBKM by delving into its core principles, implications for students and educational institutions, alignment with global educational trends, and the critical perspectives and opportunities that it appears to present. By drawing together these multifaceted aspects of MBKM, the article aims to generate a more comprehensive understanding of this transformative policy and its potential to redefine the future of Further Education in Indonesia. The article also aims to underscore the relevance of MBKM in the broader global discourse on educational reform and innovation.

2        Literature Review

MBKM is a disruptive, divisive and unconventional educational policy reform, with the potential to be a transformative initiative aimed at reshaping Further Education in Indonesia by providing students with greater autonomy and flexibility in their learning experiences. In this literature review, we explore key themes and findings related to MBKM from an Indonesian perspective, drawing insights from scholarly research and publications. It is important to recognize that interest in this reform is steadily increasing, both within Indonesia and in neighboring countries, which is anticipated to catalyze future research and studies examining this educational initiative. The existing research has primarily focused on evaluating the readiness of Further Education institutions that are charged with implementing this program and managing its complexities. In time, as MBKM continues to evolve and gain momentum, we can expect more comprehensive research and analysis, which will shed further light on the implications of this reform for the Indonesian educational landscape.

2.1       Challenges of MBKM

The MBKM policy grants Further Education institutions an increased level of autonomy and independence as they develop strategies to implement the initiative’s key philosophies. However, notwithstanding this easing of centralized control, determining the ultimate authority within the framework of MBKM can be challenging, especially in the context of curriculum development and program implementation (Restu et al. 2022). According to Purwanti (2021), the implementation of the MBKM policy may pose difficulties in ensuring the quality, relevance, and accreditation of study programs and localized curricula. Educational institutions may also need to establish clear and consistent standards, methods, and systems for facilitating and monitoring students’ off-campus learning activities. Additionally, Purwanti (2021) suggests that collaboration and coordination with various stakeholders, such as employers, government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and other educational providers, are integral to successful implementation of MBKM by educational institutions.

Purwanto and Citraningtyas (2021) have noted that the MBKM policy can foster an environment of innovation and collaboration within Further Education institutions, enhance their reputation and quality, and strengthen their relationships with the business sector and society. As mentioned before, these institutions can gain greater autonomy and independence in developing and overseeing their academic programs, accreditation processes and legal recognition. Furthermore, they can leverage technology and information to establish an efficient, innovative and inclusive learning community that caters to the diverse and changing needs of learners (Purwanto & Citraningtyas 2021). The implementation of MBKM in Indonesia presents a range of developmental opportunities for both employers and Further Education institutions. In this respect, the reform policy opens up opportunities for industries to help in creating a more diverse and job-ready workforce. In turn, industries stand to gain from MBKM reforms by having direct access to a workforce that is more diverse, adaptable and skilled in the areas of interest to the employer, equipping them to confidently tackle the challenges of the 21^st century. These benefits can stem from the skills and competencies that students acquire through various experiential learning activities developed outside the traditional classroom setting, including internships, independent research, community service, student exchange programs or entrepreneurship experience (Kusnadi et al. 2022).

Furthermore, industries have the potential to collaborate with educational institutions in designing and delivering courses that align with a suite of educational objectives relevant to both the needs of industry and society. The MBKM reforms permit industries to offer accredited courses directly to students, shifting the responsibility from Further Education institutions to acknowledge and develop industry-required competencies. It must be kept in mind, however, that this changing reform exerts unfamiliar pressures on the management structures and accrediting bodies of educational providers, understandably leading to some reticence on their part when it comes to undertaking these substantial changes. Because experiential learning is a cornerstone of MBKM, advocates of the policy need to continually promote meaningful conjoint engagement between the appropriate contributors to a student’s training, with industries, businesses and educational organizations actively and cooperatively involved in shaping the curricula and providing mentorship opportunities. Sila et al. (2022) also underscores the benefits of experiential learning in preparing students for the workforce and enhancing their employability. This emphasis on industry collaboration resonates with the concept of work-integrated learning (Billett 2009a; 2009b), which emphasizes the intimate integration of academic and workplace experiences.

2.2       Challenges and Opportunities for the Institutes and Stakeholders

Kusnadi et al. (2022) cautiously suggest that students may encounter challenges as a result of the MBKM policy, as they note that it could become challenging for students to effectively and efficiently manage their time and resources, including unfamiliar responsibilities. Finding suitable and relevant learning opportunities beyond the campus that align with their interests, goals and aspirations, might also pose difficulties. In this regard, students may have to grapple with the uncertainties and risks associated with charting their learning paths. On the other hand, Supriati et al. (2022) have opined that students can potentially benefit from the MBKM policy by being encouraged to explore their interests and passions rather than having a fixed curriculum experience. Experiential education can allow students to hone their emerging skills and competencies, establish and expand their networks and contacts, thus gaining readiness for the changing future job market. In acquiring greater freedom and flexibility in choosing the style of their educational journey, students can tailor their experiences to align more closely with their developing objectives and aspirations. Furthermore, students can gain valuable experiences and insights from diverse contexts and perspectives, which are a part of experiential education, and this will contribute to their growing knowledge and comprehension.

Purwanti (2021) delves into the perspective of potential employers or industries that are likely to partner with Further Education institutions, finding that these partners may encounter significant challenges when it comes to providing adequate and appropriate supervision, mentoring and evaluation for students participating in various off-campus experiential learning activities. Such challenging issues as organizing internships, planning independent research activities, establishing community service opportunities, arranging student exchange programs, or providing entrepreneurship experiences, are time-consuming and difficult demands. Employers may therefore need to adjust their expectations and requirements of the entering students, specifically accommodating those from diverse backgrounds, appreciating the different learning needs across various disciplines, and providing relevant assistance for students with a range of skill levels.

While MBKM holds immense promise, researchers have identified several challenges and implementation issues as well. For instance, Purwanti (2021), raises concerns about ensuring the quality and accreditation of study programs and curricula. The rapid expansion of experiential learning opportunities has also placed a burden on institutions to design effective monitoring and assessment mechanisms (Kusnadi et al. 2022). Additionally, the policy’s shift towards a more decentralized approach has led to questions about authority and transparent decision-making strategies within educational institutions (Restu et al. 2022).

Researchers have highlighted the importance of ensuring equity and access in the implementation of MBKM. While the policy aims to provide greater opportunities for students, it must also address potential disparities. Supriati et al. (2022) argue that MBKM can benefit students by expanding access to a more diverse range of learning options. However, it is crucial to ensure that these opportunities are accessible to all students, regardless of their backgrounds or circumstances. This aligns with global efforts to promote equitable access to further education and has obvious implications for efforts to create a balanced socio-economic system (Bokova 2015).

2.3       Student-centred Learning and Autonomy

One of the central tenets of MBKM is its focus on student-centred learning and autonomy. This approach recognizes that students have diverse interests, talents and career aspirations, and it seeks to empower them to take ownership of their educational journeys. Kusnadi et al. (2022) have claimed that MBKM allows students to shape their learning experiences based on their individual needs and goals. Sumani et al. (2022) contend that the Campus Teaching program, a component of MBKM activities, influences the development of students’ social skills, suggesting that Indonesian policymakers concentrate efforts on augmenting the proficiency of students’ social skills, aiming to better equip students for future challenges more effectively. This shift towards student agency aligns with global trends in education, that are designed to prioritize personalized learning experiences (Thomas & Brown 2011). Apoko et al. (2022) suggested that students demonstrate a comparatively elevated level of awareness and active engagement with the MBKM policy; they note the merits of the system as encompassing enriched learning experiences, the recognition of 20 credits for industry engagement, and the cultivation of soft skills. Apoko et al., (2022) point out that there are significant and multiple implications for MBKM implementation, notably (i) the sustained high level of enthusiasm among students for the MBKM program, (ii) anticipated enhancement in the quality of off-campus learning attributable to substantial student interest, and (iii) the capacity to instil diverse skills, cultural awareness, and adaptive proficiencies, including leadership skills (Apoko et al. 2022). MBKM grants Further Education institutions greater autonomy in designing and managing academic programs, and it is understood that this flexibility allows institutions to adapt their curricula to meet the evolving needs of students and industries. Purwanto and Citraningtyas (2021) argue that this autonomy encourages innovation and collaboration within educational institutions. It aligns with the broader trend of curriculum innovation in Higher Education (Gibbs & Coffey 2004), promoting responsive and relevant academic offerings.

Furthermore, Kampus Merdeka’s focus on experiential learning and industry engagement has the potential to enhance students’ employability. Sofyan et al. (2023) have highlighted how the program can create a learning environment that prepares graduates for the specific demands of the job market. By fostering collaboration between universities and industries, Kampus Merdeka aims to bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical skills (Richardo & Cahdriyanra 2021). This aligns with the broader goal of producing graduates who are well-prepared for the workforce (Bridgstock & Cunningham 2016). Nadeak (2023) contends that the MBKM program will enhance all levels of higher education by providing opportunities for both students and faculty members to gain experience outside the traditional classroom setting. Nadeak (2023) argues that for students, the MBKM program can have a positive impact on their ability to enhance knowledge and skills, while for lecturers, the MBKM program can positively influence their capacity to improve teaching abilities (Nadeak 2023). MBKM’s emphasis on experiential learning, industry collaboration and student-centred approaches, aligns well with global trends in Further Education. It reflects the growing recognition of the importance of producing graduates who are not only academically competent but also equipped with practical skills and real-world experience (Marginson 2017). This focus on preparing students for the demands of the modern job market resonates with discussions about the future of work and skills development on a global scale (World Economic Forum 2020). However, Haryanto et al. (2022), caution Further Education Institutes’ implementation of MBKM as their research indicates that a significant portion of students remain hesitant and harbour reservations about actively participating in the MBKM program. Haryanto et al. (2022), further contend that universities must enhance efforts in imparting a comprehensive understanding of MBKM implementation, including fostering enhanced preparedness for meaningful student engagement in the program (Haryanto et al. 2022).

3        Discussion

3.1       Collaboration practices

While exploring internship programs in private universities in Aceh, Fuadi and Aswita (2021) found that these institutions encountered significant management hurdles primarily because they lacked appropriate mechanisms for establishing collaborations with external entities. In this respect, collaborations would include engagement with companies such as state-owned enterprises (BUMN) and regional-owned enterprises (BUMD), as well as governmental agencies. Zainal (2021) contends that as long as MBKM remains “optional” and there is a dearth of comprehensive dissemination of the policy throughout the Further Education sector, there exists a “lack of comprehension” among university administrators, regarding the requisites for effectively implementing the policy. Consequently, the significance and necessity of forging partnerships with industries still remains somewhat elusive (Voak et al. 2023).

Siregar et al. (2020) also point out that barriers exist in motivating universities to change their educational offerings, and these authors emphasize the necessity of establishing processes and procedures to effectively “socialize” MBKM policies across the university landscape, and to augment wider awareness regarding the advantages of this policy for students. Agung et al. (2020) observe that in the three universities they examined, obstacles revolved around accrediting “external” study programs concerning agreed accreditation status (Agung et al. 2020). This potential impasse necessitates deeper analysis and more effective efforts for resolution, which could be partly achieved through more comprehensive dissemination efforts. Such dissemination would help in cultivating a wider understanding of the policy, and garner additional support from stakeholders for the MBKM policy. It goes without saying that reform in the Further Education sector is imperative, particularly concerning campus accreditation. Rosser (2022) has highlighted that the poor quality of Further Education institutions in Indonesia partly arises from the long-term deficiency in institutional governance, and Rosser further argues that this deficiency reflects the prevalence of exploitative officials and business entities commonly found in institutional governance, a system that tends to side-line important governance aspects aligned with research, teaching and community service which are more congruent with neoliberal or idealistic concepts of quality.

3.2       Curriculum change, its impact on competency requirements (hard v soft) and skills development

Indrawati and Kuncoro’s (2021) perspective on the MBKM program suggests that effective and determined leadership is an essential prerequisite for the implementation of this policy. They propose a phased approach, where the Ministry of Education and Culture might initiate the MBKM program through several pilot projects before the nationwide implementation of regulations. As earlier noted, the MBKM policy opens avenues for students to acquire broader learning experiences and novel competencies through diverse activities beyond their primary study programs, intending to produce graduates well-equipped to navigate the intricate challenges of the 21st century. In this respect, Junaidi and Wulandari (2020) contend that Indonesian universities have a responsibility to adapt their curricula to the Ministry of Education’s SN-Dikti program guide, thus directly supporting the MBKM program. This guide outlines the necessary curriculum changes appropriate for fostering the new areas of (i) Data literacy, (ii) Technological literacy, (iii) Human literacy, and (iv) the ethical values founded on religious comprehension.

Although the primary aim of MBKM to cultivate adaptability and flexibility in education appears straightforward, its implementation poses various challenges. The execution of this implementation involves an extensive overhaul of numerous systems, encompassing both paradigmatic and administrative dimensions, and during the initial phase, universities often grapple with administrative intricacies, as has been openly outlined in the extant literature. An example comes from the work of Fuadi and Aswita (2021), who have delineated current limitations and issues faced by further education institutions in Aceh as they attempt to undertake MKBM principles. These private Further Education institutions in Aceh are currently in the process of modifying their curricula to align with the MBKM framework, which marks their preliminary steps in implementing MKBM. However, and as mentioned earlier, Fuadi and Aswita’s study reveals that while doing so, they are confronting difficulties in forging connections with campuses, corporations, state-owned enterprises (BUMN), regional-owned enterprises (BUMD) and other governmental bodies. 

Furthermore, the current situation in Aceh accentuates the significance of addressing the quality of teaching staff and entrant students, as the more robust curricula demand proficient and productive personnel. In this regard, there are important concerns about the readiness of existing educators and the abilities of entrant students to engage with the changed circumstances. Another critical challenge pertains to the budgetary aspects of internship activities, which warrant serious consideration to avoid crippling economic stresses in the future. 

The challenges being experienced in implementing the MBKM program can also be seen in a private campus situated in Bogor, West Java. Hudjimartsu et al. (2022) have highlighted the process underway here of rejuvenating its curricula to achieve greater autonomy and flexibility, adapting to the curriculum requirements posed by MBKM. They have already established a document to serve as a blueprint for execution. However, challenges have emerged concomitantly, such as (i) the ongoing development of an outcome-based Education-centred curriculum, (ii) the implementation of a fresh internal learning management system, and (iii) the capacity of the server to support these new learning activities.

In addition, Zunaidi et al. (2021) have delved into the process of community engagement, which focuses on disseminating the MBKM curriculum across campus circles. They claim that the scope of KM-related awareness remains notably limited, and consequently, this limits the community service endeavor focused on fundamental MBKM concepts, the formulation of MBKM curriculum objectives, the developmental phases, curriculum preparation, and the progression of an independent campus orientation. This reinforces the notion that numerous universities are still grappling with the intricacies of MBKM implementation. Indeed, many are still outlining MBKM policies and their practical execution strategies, and amidst the task of curriculum development, restricted resources for teaching personnel emerges as a vital challenge.

Suryaman (2020) further highlights the significance of enhancing learning quality through adept curriculum design in Higher Education, noting that to create appropriate curricula, it is essential to formulate a curriculum development policy that aligns with the university’s vision and mission. This policy should take into consideration knowledge advancement, stakeholder needs, and curriculum development guidelines that integrate input from stakeholders while addressing their strategic concerns. According to Suryaman (2020), the curriculum transcends the mere achievement of learning goals since it also acts to impart an understanding of the principles of a lifelong learning journey for students.

Moreover, Mariati (2021) outlines the array of obstacles that campuses encounter while formulating an MKBM program, further asserting that crafting graduates who are well-prepared for forthcoming transformations necessitates a robust curriculum that is attuned to (i) scientific advancements and technological progress (scientific perspective), (ii) societal requisites (community demands), and (iii) the preferences of future graduates (stakeholder requirements). In a description of a practical application, Mariati (2021) highlights that diverse interpretations of the MBKM program persist, particularly concerning the development of curricula in alignment with the regulations stipulated by the National Standards. Academic institutions operating in Further Education should conceptualize curricula and institute inventive learning processes to enable students to attain optimum educational outcomes. Mariati’s (2021) elucidation of these issues underscores the problem that orchestrating changes within MBKM necessitates precise management, as numerous aspects demand simultaneous fulfilment. The campus’s internal capacity and networking capabilities are thus imperative to bolster the successful execution of the MBKM initiative.

According to The Future of Jobs Report 2020 which was released by the World Economic Forum, there has been a notable upswing in the adoption of novel technologies across diverse enterprises in recent years. Thus, the demand for a workforce equipped with a comprehension of topics such as cloud computing, big data and e-commerce has emerged as a top priority. The report consistently posits that future labour dynamics might witness a substitution of human tasks by automated systems, with a consequent significant extent of disruption contingent upon the nature of work and expertise. These reports from prominent global institutions have captured the attention of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Technology, prompting universities to be ready to impart new skill sets. For example, data literacy involves the comprehension of reading, interpreting and utilizing data and information (including big data) in the digital realm. In this context, Gee (2014) discusses several assertions that attempt to demonstrate the potency of literacy, given that literacy (i) fosters logical, analytical, critical and reasoned thinking, (ii) provides a broad and conceptual utilization of language, (iii) encourages a sceptical and inquisitive mindset, (iv) develops a clear differentiation between mythology and historical facts, (v) gives specific acknowledgment to temporal and spatial significance, (vi) describes and defines intricate and modern governance structures (including the separation of religious and political spheres), (vii) illustrates political democracy and increased social fairness, (viii) helps to reduce crime rates, (ix) enhances wide civic participation, (x) catalyzes economic growth, affluence, and efficiency, (xi) contributes to the establishment of political stability, defines and helps to install urbanization and (xii) assists in decreased birth rates. However, Gee (2014) also indicates that as far back as 1980, many scholars engaged in debates on these subjects, contending that only a minority of students had benefitted from data literacy, possibly due to the multifaceted nature of literacy which is influenced by many competing factors.

Technological literacy encompasses the grasp of how machinery operates and an understanding of the applications of technology (such as coding, artificial intelligence and engineering principles). (UNESCO IITE 2011) has defined technological literacy (formerly referred to as computer literacy) as a more profound comprehension of digital technology, encompassing both user-oriented and technical computing skills. Indeed, UNESCO has posited that technological literacy constitutes a facet of digital literacy and, using a broader scope, has added that technological literacy is an integral aspect of digital literacy. Other constituents of digital literacy encompass ICT literacy, referring to the skill set that enables active engagement in a society where services and cultural offerings are digitized and dispersed over the internet. In essence, information literacy is seen to be focused on a fundamental aspect of our Knowledge Society: the proficiency to effectively locate, discern, retrieve, process and leverage digital information (Forster 2017). 

Mariati (2021) highlights that there exist several misunderstandings among educators and education stakeholders concerning MKBM policies, particularly regarding the integration of new literacies and the difficulties associated with crafting curricula during the Industrial Era 4.0. However, it should be noted that there are indeed curriculum-related hurdles, particularly in the design and development phases. Mariati (2021) underscores that the primary objective of the MBKM policy is to establish self-directed and agile learners, noting that the long-term goal is to foster creative learning environments which are not constrained by existing educational thinking or the demands of individual students. Furthermore, the primary learning objective is to encourage students to achieve mastery in a variety of subject areas and provide them with the opportunity to autonomously select their learning pathways and courses. That said, whilst creative learning pathways may satisfactorily meet an individual’s learning needs, the accessing of specific competencies needed in the Era of Industry 4.0 requires further examination. The MBKM policy strives to enhance connections and an alignment with industry and the realm of work, to equip students with the skills necessary to seamlessly enter the workforce.

As part of engaging with MBKM, students can receive “credit” for engaging in an external study program for up to three semesters, which is equivalent to 1.5 years of study. However, Agung et al. (2020), have claimed that universities encounter difficulties when attempting to implement such programs. These difficulties encompass (i) the revision of the existing curriculum to effectively meet the new program requirements, (ii) the enabling of smooth execution of at least two semesters’ worth of appropriate study, (iii) competently managing the financial aspects of the program, considering that funding might originate from the institution or from self-funding by the student, and (vi) openly addressing the limited awareness and understanding of the MBKM policy, in order to garner support from external stakeholders, especially concerning the external study initiative (Agung et al. 2020). 

3.3       Institutional Preparedness for MBKM

It is evident from the previous sections that the achievement of sound educational institutional preparedness for MBKM is a critical aspect of its successful implementation. Since this reform aims to provide students with more freedom and flexibility in their educational journey, and emphasizes experiential learning and industry engagement, effective adaptation to this new educational landscape requires that institutions be fully prepared. By drawing insights from various scholarly references, this article will now explore some shared concepts of “educational institution preparedness” for MBKM. 

First, it is widely agreed that developing and adapting the curriculum to align with industry needs and students’ interests is one of the key components of MBKM. Consequently, educational institutions need to be prepared to revise and create flexible curricula that offer a diverse range of learning pathways and suit a variety of students in a range of course areas. The importance of curriculum development to meet the evolving demands of further education, including new approaches such as e-learning, blended learning and virtual campuses, is a critical perspective relevant to the goals of MBKM (Bacsich 2012; Bijnens et al. 2008; Staring et al. 2022).

Second, it is vital that intellectual and practical engagement is developed between Institutions and Industries. The nature and practicalities relevant to this issue of engagement must be transparently addressed since MBKM specifically encourages these closer collaborations. Institutions must be prepared to establish partnerships with various Industries, as a mechanism for providing students with meaningful experiential learning opportunities. The benefits of Industry engagement, including knowledge transfer and enhanced learning outcomes, align with MBKM’s objectives (Kay et al. 2019; Peach & Matthews 2011). 

Third, the infrastructure and technology required for the implementation of MBKM activities presupposes access to, and adoption of, advanced technologies and infrastructure designed to support various learning modes. These can include online and experiential learning; Institutions should be prepared to invest in and maintain these technological resources. Indeed, Bates (2000) stresses the importance of technology in Higher Education, particularly in supporting flexible and innovative learning approaches like those encouraged by MBKM. 

Fourth, faculty members must play a crucial role in the presentation of MBKM, by guiding students in their learning journeys. In this regard, Institutions should be prepared to provide faculty development programs to equip educators with the necessary skills and knowledge to facilitate diverse learning experiences. Guskey (2002) highlights the significance of ongoing professional development for educators in Higher Education, which aligns with MBKM’s emphasis on student-centered learning. 

Fifth, maintaining quality standards and ensuring accreditation for the various learning pathways offered under MBKM is essential. Educational institutions need to have mechanisms in place to assess and assure the quality of these diverse educational experiences, to maintain the status and recognition of their graduates. Harvey and Green (1993) emphasize the importance of quality assurance and accreditation in Higher Education, which are principles applicable to MBKM’s multidimensional approach.

Finally, in conjunction with the increased level of freedom and flexibility, students may require additional support services to effectively navigate their educational paths. Institutions should be prepared to offer comprehensive support services, including academic advising, career counselling and mental health resources, implying that the role of student-support services in enhancing student retention and success is a significant element aligned with MBKM’s student-centered approach. (Tinto 2003a; 2003b). In its construction, MBKM necessitates collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders, including educational institutions, employers, government agencies and non-governmental organizations. Institutions should thus be continually prepared to engage in collaborative efforts to ensure the success of the program. Kezar (2001) underscores the importance of continual collaboration in Further Education for achieving innovative and transformative initiatives such as MBKM.

3.4       Unravelling Dimensions of the MBKM Program

Wati et al. (2022) have emphasized that collaboration between universities and industries is critical in preparing individuals for the digital era, and Sila et al. (2022) clearly illustrate that the MBKM concept offers significant opportunities to shape university graduates’ competencies to meet the demands of the professional job market. The MBKM program is expected to address the challenges that all universities face in producing graduates that align with (i) the needs of evolving times, (ii) an understanding of scientific and technological advancements, (iii) appreciation of current business and industry requirements, and (iv) the changing societal dynamics of the industrial world (Ministry of Education and Culture 2020). Furthermore, Richardo and Cahdriyana (2021) also emphasize that the MBKM program aims to establish meaningful connections and alignments between universities and industries. This compels universities to structure their curricula keeping in mind industry needs. It must be pointed out that before the institution of the MBKM policy, State Higher Education Institutions with Incorporated Legal Entities, or Perguruan Tinggi Negeri Badan Hukum (PTNBH), had already begun to establish closer ties between universities and industries, allowing curriculum adjustments to occur based on industry demands (Utami et al. 2023). 

Sofyan et al. (2023) describe how the government-launched MBKM program transforms Higher Education into an environment that offers extensive and secure learning opportunities for all. Additionally, education and vocational training have become central points of educational policy, as is exemplified by the establishment of the Directorate General of Vocational Education within the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology. Meanwhile, Crysdian (2022) argues that the program will foster long-term collaboration between universities and industries driven by students’ demand for industrial experiences. Richardo and Cahdriyana (2021) further suggest that students can engage in industry internships to adapt, align and potentially secure positions in industries upon graduation.

Nevertheless, several criticisms have arisen regarding the implementation of the MBKM policy (Lhutfi & Mardiani 2020). These criticisms of the MBKM policy often center on the observation that educational objectives tend to focus on income and personal well-being, rather than shaping individuals who are capable of fulfilling substantial roles in a democratic society. In this context, Resa, Azahra, and Ramadoni (2023) contend that MBKM primarily carries a responsibility for guiding an educational orientation aimed at producing workers capable of serving corporations (Resa et al. 2023). Kodrat (2021) argues that within the philosophy of education, MBKM tends to promote neo-liberalization and individualization, leading to a learning emphasis on individuals and directing education toward industrial or market needs (Kodrat 2021). Furthermore, according to Saputra (2023), the internship program may become a mechanism for providing industries with inexpensive labor (Saputra 2023). Riandy (2022) further argues that within the context of MBKM, Indonesian educational institutions tend to become training centers, with internships leading to job insecurity and exploitation, inadequate compensation, problematic employment agreements, and resulting job shortages (Riandy 2022). Utami et al. (2023) highlight the importance of preventing the MBKM policy from exacerbating social class inequalities, stressing the need to establish a solid foundation among the nation’s youth through an educational framework that prioritizes humanistic values over economic ones.

Regarding collaborations between Private Higher Education Institutions and external entities (service companies, industries, communities, other universities, public and private institutions), Arifin and Muslim (2020) point out challenges that need clarification, especially within smaller Private Higher Education Institutions. Conversely, larger Private Higher Education Institutions face fewer challenges when collaborating with relevant entities. Kande (2022)underscores issues related to (i) adaptability and flexibility within some aspects of institutional and human resource capacities in Further Education institutions, (ii) unclear collaboration mechanisms between study programs within and outside the institution, and (iii) the financial burden faced by students from remote institutions (Kande 2022). Sabriadi and Wakia (2021) stress the need for clear regulations governing collaborative mechanisms to facilitate partnerships between small universities and larger institutions.

Additionally, both the Gadjah Mada University Student Executive Board (BEM) and the University of Indonesia Student Executive Board (BEM), have expressed critical perspectives through online media. In a public hearing held in conjunction with Commission X (Education) of the Indonesian House of Representatives (DPR RI), the Gadjah Mada University BEM voiced concerns about discrepancies in institutional status and accreditation, particularly regarding their impact on access to partnerships, quality assurance and curriculum adaptability (Maharani 2022). Similarly, the University of Indonesia BEM highlighted several student issues, including challenges with credit unit conversions (SKS), limited information about MBKM and delays in receiving incentives.

4        Findings

The MBKM program has garnered significant attention from researchers, educators and policymakers in recent years. This innovative educational initiative, introduced in Indonesia, has sparked numerous discussions and research endeavors aimed at investigating its potential impact, challenges and consequences. Our exploration of researchers’ perspectives on MBKM, has provided some insight into the diverse viewpoints surrounding this transformative program, in areas such as facilitating collaboration between academic Institutions and Industries. One prevalent theme in research on MBKM revolves around its role in fostering collaboration between academic institutions and industries, and scholars such as Wati et al. (2022) contend that this collaboration is paramount for preparing individuals to meet the demands of the digital era. They underscore the importance of aligning academic curricula with the evolving needs of industries, and point out that MBKM offers a framework to facilitate such an alignment. Indeed, the program encourages universities to closely collaborate with industries to develop courses and learning experiences that equip students with practical skills and knowledge. It also encourages universities to recognize the significant opportunities presented by the MBKM concept for shaping the competencies of university graduates to meet the requirements of the contemporary job market. In this regard, Sila et al. (2022) argue that MBKM can help bridge the gap between academic learning and real-world employment, suggesting that by offering experiential learning opportunities beyond the traditional classroom setting, such as internships and community service, MBKM aims to produce graduates who not only possess academic proficiency but are also well-prepared for the workforce. 

There are, however, recognized challenges in the implementation of this program, and despite the promising aspects of MBKM, researchers have identified several significant challenges (Krishnapatria 2021; Yuhastina et al. 2020). It is recognized that interdisciplinary education often gives rise to the criticism that the program’s objectives appear to be focused on individual income and individual well-being, potentially overshadowing broader societal functions. In this respect, Kodrat (2021) argues that MBKM may be primarily geared toward producing a workforce serving corporate interests, and it is understood that these concerns reflect a broader debate regarding the balance between education for individual employability and education for broader social and democratic goals (Kodrat 2021). It has also been claimed by Yuhastina et al. (2020), that MBKM may inadvertently promote neo-liberalization and individualization, contending that such a focus is embedded in the MBKM philosophy of education. They assert that the program’s emphasis on individual learners and alignment with the industry’s needs might overshadow broader educational objectives, potentially diminishing the societal role of education. However, on a more optimistic note, researchers like Sofyan et al. (2023) emphasize how the MBKM program transforms further education into an environment that offers extensive and secure learning opportunities for all. This perspective views MBKM as an inclusive initiative that empowers students by granting them greater autonomy and flexibility in choosing their educational paths. It also aligns with the establishment of the Directorate General of Vocational Education, highlighting the significance of educational and vocational training spaces in policy discussions around collaboration between further educational institutes and industry stakeholders. Richardo and Cahdriyana (2021) opined that when students engage in industry internships, it allows them to adapt to industry practices and potentially secure employment upon graduation. This perspective underscores the potential benefits of the program for students, which seeks to bridge the gap between academic knowledge and practical workplace skills.

5        Concluding Remarks

It is evident in conclusion that transforming the learning culture in the Indonesian Further Education sector in support of Kampus Merdeka requires a comprehensive approach tailored to the Indonesian context. Embracing experiential learning, fostering growth mindsets, promoting industry collaboration, encouraging interdisciplinary approaches, establishing robust support systems, enhancing assessment practices, and emphasizing ethical knowledge management, are all essential steps in this process. These challenges resonate with the broader goals of Indonesian education reform, preparing students for the demands of the modern workforce and nurturing responsible, adaptable and innovative citizens. This article has identified many challenges faced by the Further Education Institutions in Indonesia even as they embrace the spirit of MBKM which at its core aims to contribute to the nation’s development.

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These are uncertain times, and this uncertainty is being particularly felt in the world of education. We have seen unprecedented global closures of schools, colleges and universities, all of which have directly impacted on the way we now conceptualise the practice of teaching and learning. As the world responds to concatenated waves of technological innovation, adult learners in all areas will need to take a more active role in their own learning, with programme designers placing them at the centre of their human capability development interventions (Albrahim 2020). This paper explores the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on ‘educators’ and ‘trainers’ across the Further Education and Training sector in Indonesia as a result of the rapid deployment of e-learning. The discussion will further examine the expansion of communities of practice, and undertake an assessment of institutional support provisioned to move learning to an online context. It will particularly explore participant responses to the technical challenges faced by educators and learners transitioning to e-learning. Finally, the authors investigate the nature of the paradigm shift required at an institutional level to ensure appropriate future development of an agile and responsive Indonesian administrative management and special technological support infrastructure requirements (Kardinasari 2015).

Keywords: Human capability development, student centred learning, communities of practice.

1        Introduction Culture in Context

This paper acknowledges and recognises that collaborative approaches are seen to be transparently applicable in an Indonesian context, and that lifelong learning and continual reskilling will become the new normal as rapid change impacts on all areas of learning, particularly as modern education and labour market policies focus on ‘enhancing the ability to adapt to an ever-changing marketplace’ (Stiglitz & Greenwald 2015, 56). In this respect, the cultural mores at the local site of the intervention and the national principles affected by the investigations should be respected and addressed (Sayuti 2016). As a result, Indonesian human capability development programmes of the ‘Guru-centred’ style, are unlikely to be compatible with modern educational purposes. This suggests that Indonesia, like many developing countries, should be encouraged to move towards a more ‘student-centred’ approach (Siswati 2019), the implications of which are that trainers and educators will be mentors, coaches and guides rather than teachers and instructors (Jones 2006). Stiglitz et al. (2015) stated that ‘we learn by doing, that what we do and how we do it affects what we learn and the evolution of our economy and society’ (Stiglitz & Greenwald 2015, 51). With this foremost in our minds, the learning styles and training approaches of practitioners across the tertiary education sector, particularly with regard to training practitioners in the National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA), require further analysis. The respondents’ comments provided a useful level of critique of learning approaches across the institutes under examination, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. These reflections provided a means of reviewing existing approaches, the human capability requirements to meet the demands of e-learning, and management practices appropriate for education and training settings. It may take quite some time for the implications and impact of these findings to be realised by Indonesian society.

In order to make training relevant to trainees’ unique cultures and diversity, it was essential to develop an understanding of the divergent training needs of NIPA participants. Traditional educational approaches are being replaced by advanced simulation, artificial intelligence and an array of new technologies – the implementation and acceptance of which have been accelerated by COVID-19. Many countries are grappling with determining relevant technological graduate competencies. Indonesian university graduates, according to Oey et al. (2017), concluded that, in facing increased levels of digital technology and automation in the near future, every graduate should develop several key capabilities including: (i) critical thinking, creativity, innovation and sensitivity to a range of challenging circumstances and be able to respond with an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approach; (ii) the ability to apply informational communication technology including basic computer skills such as word processing, spreadsheets, and PowerPoint presentations, allied to basic research capabilities; (iii) the ability to be inclusive of cultural divergence and receptive to the values of other cultures, ethnic groups, race and religions; (iv) an aptitude to develop teams and conduct negotiations, including the sharing of knowledge with others; (v) developing effective communication through various forms of information technologies; (vi) the capacity to think globally whilst acting locally and collaborating internationally; (vii) the ability to collect, process and analyse data in order to support quality decision making; and (viii) exhibiting citizenship in an Indonesian context, by understanding the history and goals of national identities in Indonesia, including its diverse manifestations of local wisdoms, traditions and cultures (Oey et al. 2017).

There is a strong emphasis on ‘soft skills’ development in Oey’s typology of tertiary graduate skills. Currently, society is going through significant social and political reconstruction, making the task of selecting appropriate skills even more challenging. Ra et al. (2019) claimed that soft skills will be just as important as ‘higher order cognitive skills’ and stressed the importance of ‘learnability’ a willingness and ability to unlearn, learn and relearn (Ra et al. 2019). Ra, Jagannathan and Maclean (2021) noted that learnability is critical for individuals to adapt to the emerging needs of the economy and society as they navigate their lives (Ra, Jagannathan, & Maclean 2021, 16). Whilst some of these capabilities are somewhat generic to university graduates around the world, especially when it comes to innovation, Sayuti and Mujiarto note that greater emphasis is required in developing ‘pedagogy and learning approaches that enable critical thinking, innovation and creativity’ (Sayuti & Mujiarto 2018) in the Indonesian educational context. In highlighting the need for Indonesian graduates to develop human capabilities of inclusive cultural diversity, learnability and national identity, this paper explores the challenges associated with their introduction in an online e-learning environment.

The Government of Indonesia’s Ministry of Empowerment of State Apparatus and Bureaucratic Reform (Kemenpan and RB), regulates competency standards for government officials and public servants in Indonesia through Regulation No. 38/2018 on Competency Standards for Government Official Positions (Standar Kompetensi Jabatan ASN). The term ‘competency standard’ describes the knowledge, skills and attitudes that government officials need to perform their duties and respond to their job requirements in an appropriate manner. There are three types of competency standards for government officials: (i) Managerial Competencies, which are the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that can be observed, measured and developed to lead and/or manage an organisation; (ii) Technical Competencies, which are the specific knowledge, skills and attitudes that can be observed, measured and developed in relation to a role; and (iii) Social and Cultural Competencies. According to Regulation No 38/2018, these social and cultural competencies are specific knowledge, skills and attitudes that can be observed, measured and developed as they relate to experiences with multicultural society in term of religions, ethnicity and culture, behaviours, nationalism, ethics, values, morals, emotions and principles. These human capabilities have to be fulfilled by all government officials in the performance of their duties. This paper examines the last of these national competency standards, the social and cultural competencies.

2        Workforce Considerations

The NIPA trainers interviewed for this study commented that ‘classical’ training provides opportunities to examine, explore, and engage in the development of social and cultural competencies. In traditional, face-to-face ‘classical’ training contexts, there are considerable opportunities for personal ‘interaction’ when exploring these cultural values; however, in the online learning environment, opportunities to explore these values more directly are rare. This was articulated by one respondent, who said:

“How do we make e-training feel like classical training? We cannot interact physically, online is only the mind. Emotions come from the physical interaction of people … when I tell my story to you right here in front of me, personally, and emotionally. Virtually we need to find other ways that are not yet clear to us.”

As this respondent has outlined, the challenge is to find ways to engage personally and emotionally in an online setting. Other trainers and facilitators articulated similar “unknowns.” We do not know: (i) how to create ‘personal’ encounters online; (ii) which approaches work best for different age groups; or (iii) which skills are required in this virtual environment. There is, perhaps, a lack of appreciation regarding the ability of the current workforce, particularly its older members, to adjust to changing educational environments, new online e-learning platforms and unfamiliar training approaches.  This problem is exacerbated by the lack of opportunities for institutional professional development programmes, which has led to individual groups of trainers creating their own ‘communities of practice’ (Lave & Wenger 1991) where participants willingly share with each other and support each other in delivering training. One respondent commented that:

“After a training workshop we use a ‘WhatsApp’ group with other trainers so they can comment on performance, what may be missing, and on what needs to be improved.”

Conducting supportive communities of practice goes some way to assisting trainers develop online teaching skills and assisting individuals to solve problems and make decisions (Dalkir 2017). Communities of practice are understood to be groups of people who share common concerns among themselves on a topic of mutual interest, and by deepening their collective knowledge and expertise through interaction with each other on an ongoing basis (Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder 2002). It has been suggested that harvesting this knowledge and expertise requires interventions from the institutes involved as a means of preserving institutional knowledge (Dalkir 2017).  At a minimum, these communities of practice could form the basis of sanctioned professional development programmes but, according to some of the respondents in this study, this is not the case in NIPA. Rather, they were often expected to ‘do it themselves’. It should be noted that communities of practice provide trainers with the means of control over their professional development requirements, in contrast to institutionally sanctioned professional development programmes. The latter impose pedagogy with the promise of encouraging skill restoration, solving problems or providing growth opportunities (Sparks 1994).

Successful training interventions are reliant upon individual professional learning programmes, ideally sanctioned within the institute or developed collaboratively through communities of practice which create value not just for the individual, but also for the institute. Sharma and Bindal note that effective professional development for educators leads to improved quality of teaching and positive learner outcomes (Sharma & Bindal 2013). Further, Wenger et al. (2002) identified a short term value to the organisation in the form of improved business outcomes, providing an arena for problem solving, better decision making, time and cost reductions, and the ability to take risks. Amin and Roberts (2008) added that the perceived benefits of communities of practice can be seen in the creation of a climate of innovation, particularly in the form of organisational innovation.

In addition to the ad hoc nature of professional development programmes in the vocational education and training arena, this study highlights the health and welfare concerns faced by trainers when moving ‘online’ to such a significant extent. These issues are noted below, collated under category headings based on the responses.

2.1        Impact on Female Trainers

The move towards ‘working from home’ and delivering training online created challenges for women trainees more than for their male counterparts. As articulated by one respondent, ‘trainers and facilitators have lives outside their working role’ and it was noted that their managers are, at times, unable to ‘see the delicacy of the problem of working from home, particularly when we have other jobs such as being a mother.’ This particular comment was reflected in a variety of ways by many of the women in this study, suggesting that little consideration was given to the stress of working from home, overlooking the ‘troubles and difficulties’ the women faced.

One male respondent noted that working from home did not present the same family issues as it did for his female colleagues. He expressed ‘sympathy’ for their circumstances, yet felt detached from the consequences. In the main, though, it was generally noted that managing family responsibilities and home duties impacts more severely on women than on men. One female respondent reported that:

“I am a woman, I am a mother, I am a wife, and these pressures sometimes build up and prevent me from performing at the highest level (in my job). The house is very small and loud, so if my microphone is on when I conduct the training programme from home, the participants can hear everything, which is disturbing.”

It is as though home life cannot be allowed to intrude upon the ‘professionalism’ expected in work situations. This attitude emerges in the discussions as the ‘participants view’ of what constitutes professionalism. A natural response to this attitude is that there is pressure to maintain professionalism. In many East Asian cultures, the phenomenon of ‘saving face’ (Minkov & Hofstede 2012) is not uncommon and this perspective is equally apparent in Indonesia. This situation impacts on an individual learner’s sense of worth, forming a power differential in the individual’s relationship with teachers and lecturers. It would appear that this issue requires greater consideration from managers and participants regarding the family life circumstances that may impact on ‘working from home’. This includes such considerations as: (i) hours of work and availability; (ii) support in managing work requirements; and (iii) varying the levels of support according to ‘age’, ‘seniority’ and ‘region’.

2.2        Age and Seniority

Pruetipibultham (2012) noted that in Indonesia, particularly in Javanese culture, deference toward age, position, status and gender (male) exists, which is illustrated through culturally respectful language directed towards older males in positions of authority. The impact of this deference in training situations was that trainers were required to be cognisant and respectful of diversity within Indonesian culture. Facilitators are challenged in expressing the dichotomy between communicating ‘equality and openness’ whilst simultaneously showing ‘respect’ and honouring ‘status’. In Javanese culture, showing positional appropriateness, reflected through respectful behaviours and communication, is essential (Pruetipibultham 2012). The culture of honouring status and showing respect is illustrated by a respondent’s comments on Indonesian education:

“In Indonesia it’s uncommon for children to discuss with their teacher. We are changing… mostly they just sit and listen. Some teachers don’t like students asking [questions] – that culture still persists now (awkward laughter).”

It was noted that people in more senior training roles were able to express their concerns more confidently to management without fear of reproach than younger, less experienced trainers. Given that the COVID-19 pandemic thrust many trainers into a ‘training from home’ situation, there has not been enough research into the impact of these changes on families and relationships. Further research could explore the support that trainers/facilitators would need in order to work effectively in this mode, and also examine the impact of working remotely on the health and welfare of Indonesian trainers and facilitators. The following questions could be explored: (i) What is the nature of the interaction between family commitments and their impact on work duties? (ii) What techniques are available for discharging professional duties from the office and for setting work priorities? (iii) Which channels could be used for approaching management for support and equipment, and for negotiating time management issues? and (iv) How can a trainee establish a satisfactory work-life balance, and access required welfare support needs?

3        Social and Economic Disparity

The sustainable development goals of (i) improving quality education, (ii) maintaining decent work conditions and economic growth, and (iii) significantly reducing inequality, have all been impacted to a large extent by the COVID-19 pandemic. It has been noted that the World Bank estimates that millions of people may be forced into poverty by the economic crisis (Gulseven et al. 2020). A world moving toward online education requires equal and fair access to educational technologies. Failing to provide this valuable infrastructure is likely to perpetuate social and economic disadvantage. Unstable and unreliable internet connectivity across many areas causes widespread disparity in access to training, with many respondents bemoaning inadequate electricity supplies. Indeed, a recent South Asian study noted that many countries across the region still do not have full access to electricity (Chaudhary & Dhakal 2021). Students from poorer or remote communities are at a constant and severe disadvantage. One respondent commented that ‘I cannot imagine how our students living in villages and remote communities adapt when they experience this problem.’ 

Internet connectivity issues were manifested in a number of unusual ways. One respondent said that connectivity and internet access continually impacts on how participants feel about their learning. This person suggested that the perception of other participants was somehow linked to the ‘quality’ of internet provision. When encountering poor internet connections ‘the participants in training feel that this will embarrass them and others may laugh at them.’ Internet connectivity clearly adds an additional layer of emotional stress:

“We also have the problem that the internet sometimes goes ‘on and off’ during online lessons. This leads to feelings of embarrassment and worrying that others will laugh at them. This is a serious concern. I don’t want to look bad because my connection is bad. Poor internet is a worry and can adversely affect motivation.”

Whilst these internet connectivity issues are not regarded as the individual’s fault, their unease or anxiety about how poor connections may be perceived by others becomes an issue for online delivery. Circumstances that make a person ‘look bad’ have serious consequences in an Indonesian context and should clearly be avoided. The impact remains significant, regardless of whether the individual has any control over the situation. Beyond the external conditions of connectivity and internet access, participants might also be subjected to subtle forms of bullying, associated with the computers they are using. When an individual’s computer lags behind or continually disrupts the online learning experience for other participants, detrimental comments may be directed at the participant:

“Sometimes the laptop they have does not support them, sometimes their work colleagues say “Buy a new one please.” This is a very subtle form of bullying, I think. We cannot introduce online learning until we think about the human and cultural aspects of using this technology.”

Putting pressure on individuals, families and communities to purchase new computer hardware is a subtle form of bullying and is undeniably discriminative. Respondents commented that the potential exists to discriminate between groups of people, maintaining that the dependence on technology to deliver training programmes perpetuates inequity, whilst equally being an obstruction to attaining sustainable development goals.  This was expressed as ‘we are not growing together’ and we are ‘discriminating between groups of people.’ Whether this is an urban/rural distinction or a socio-economic one, it was nevertheless summed up by one respondent as a distinction between the ‘haves and the have nots’. The post COVID-19 pandemic phase will require governments and the international community to invest in quality education and innovative technical solutions to ensure that economic growth is shared by all (Corlatean 2020).

Poorer communities impacted by the lack of infrastructure and connectivity are restricted in their ability to engage in the e-learning education environment. In this respect, reliable infrastructure is critical for economic growth and society’s well-being (Gulseven et al. 2020). The immediacy and urgency of ‘going online’, due in part to the COVID-19 pandemic, has heightened the level of social and economic disparities, and has highlighted the need for policy makers and government officials to address these concerns (Nerini et al. 2020; Subrahmanyam & Elson-Rogers 2022). Whilst the Government of Indonesia has provided funding to educational institutions for individuals to access the internet, as has been noted on numerous occasions during this study, it is not the funding so much as the matter of access to a reliable service provider. This issue falls into the separate hands of the known internet providers:

“Teaching can be done online if you have the infrastructure supporting you; if you don’t have the infrastructure, you have to conduct it classically…we don’t have enough infrastructure at home, internet is still very expensive and unstable, no working table, no work chair. It all obstructs proper work. I can imagine other participants have similar problems.”

Rahayu reported that inadequate bandwidth in regional centres across Indonesia hindered higher education staff in the academic pursuit of online teaching (Rahayu 2019). This study found that many students in rural and remote communities suffered not only from poor internet connectivity, but in some instances had no power at all:

“The social and economic conditions of our students are very diverse [so] it becomes very challenging… some students don’t even have electricity at home …we can provide high speed internet inside the campus, but outside our students rely on internet providers and these are not reliable. This is very challenging and frustrating at the same time.”

Clearly, institutions pursuing online e-learning methodologies have to provide alternative means of reaching these disengaged communities. This cannot just be in relation to studies on campus, since nearly 60% of students studying in the Malang State Polytechnic come from rural communities around Malang. It was noted that internet connectivity was poor in the city of Malang and possibly even more problematic in rural communities. 

This research revealed that in the haste to go ‘online’ during the COVID-19 period, little consideration was given to how poorer communities might be able to seek an alternate means of learning. Ideas presented in this study included: (i) asynchronistic learning where individuals can download and print student learning materials; (ii) reducing the number of video lessons and providing YouTube videos for instruction in reducing data usage; and (iii) re-structuring engagement time and allowing flexibility and agility to determine internet engagement for students whilst also impacting on teachers and management. Whilst these approaches go some way towards improving the way e-learning could occur, they still place demands on poorer communities to stay connected. In addition, it puts an added burden upon those students who cannot afford to spend their own money on printing and internet access costs.

The Government of Indonesia offers funding to institutions to subsidise access for rural communities through the provision of data packages. This goes some way to alleviate the burden faced by the rural poor. However as previously noted, far more is required. Corlatean (2020) pointed out that there are many risks, challenges and inequities associated with a rapid move to online learning, and these will impact on attempts to meet sustainable development goals. This may require a significant realignment of  infrastructure to meet the demands of poorer rural communities, and governments and policy makers the world over will be required to demonstrate greater political will (Corlatean 2020).

Where access to the internet was of concern to the participants in this study, there was uniform agreement on the potential benefits of an asynchronistic learning approach with a ‘step-by-step’ course structure built on activities related to knowledge and skills. Whilst it is deemed complex and challenging to deliver values-based educational experiences in an online teaching environment, this is of critical importance. Finding the best ways to achieve ‘values’ education remains the challenge. More could be done to develop case studies, role plays, and ‘scenario and hypotheticals’ around managing value-based scenarios covering issues such as: (i) attitudes to the outer islands of Indonesia; (ii) unity and diversity; (iii) the One nation Many peoples philosophy; (iv) governance; and (v) human rights and economic rights.

Notwithstanding these provisions, difficult questions remain: (i) What ‘alternative methods’ might exist? (ii) What regional adjustments can be provided for engaging with disadvantaged communities? and (iii) How might institutions provide these approaches, whilst meeting the requirements of a centralised education and training system? Further research is required to determine which approaches are available to help poorer communities respond to online education and, ultimately, to determine how ‘power and control’ might be provided to these disadvantaged communities.

4        Closing Remarks

Developing a culture of reflective practice is urgently needed by trainers and educators within the sector. To ensure its successful implementation, it should also be encouraged and professionally embraced as best practice. Vocational educators must consider how they can facilitate student learnability, provide culturally safe learning environments, and be empathetic to the many technological constraints evident in remote communities and multi-generational households. A willingness to engage in culturally challenging and confrontational exchanges is also required to create greater authenticity in human capability interventions. The authors contend that closer engagement with industry and community is needed not only to shape training interventions more effectively, but also to foster contextualisation, reasonable adjustment and to inform curriculum development. Agility and flexibility are key to ensuring that work-ready outcomes are realised and that programmes remain focused on the emerging needs of the economy and society.

This study has endeavoured to highlight the gaps in existing practice on an institutional level and advocate steps to shape a more agile and responsive Indonesian vocational training sector. A meaningful and reflective approach would include examining six key ideas: (a) ethical behaviour, (b) intentions, (c) recipient country consideration, (d) local consideration, (e) communities of practice, and (f) sharing (Fairman et al. 2020). Further research into the approaches required by vocational teaching staff to address the challenges faced by students learning online, particularly in relation to remote communities and practical skill development, would also prove beneficial. More investigation is needed as Indonesia begins its e-learning journey, particularly around engaging students and ensuring inclusivity both for students and facilitators.

It is worth remembering that, like many ASEAN nations, Indonesia has a rich tapestry of coexistent cultures. These cultures and traditions can shed light on much larger and complex globalised problems. The key to new and creative responses to much more significant challenges of national human capability development may well be found in these communities, villages and kampongs. An ethnically diverse nation such as Indonesia, with around 730 indigenous languages and associated ethnic groups (Tumonggor et al. 2013), brings with it centuries of culture, knowledge and a wealth of insights. All of these attributes have real value and currency and should be treasured in an increasingly homogeneous world. Indonesian multiculturalism is something to be cherished and nurtured as it could prove to be its competitive advantage with the nation seeking to transform its economy and step into the international arena.

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Experiences of working on a range of projects connected with Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and professional development of educators and trainers, in both Indonesia and Australia, have contributed to the authors exploring trends and issues in the preparation and professional development of TVET teachers in the two countries. Whilst both countries are concerned to develop a skilled workforce, their policies and approaches to the TVET educators and trainers have different emphases. In Australia, there are concerns for quality, delivery and outcomes of the TVET sector. Recent policies and reduced financial support particularly of publically provided TVET are diminishing opportunities to undertake TVET education and training, reduce opportunities for learners and impact on the societal context. Indonesia aims to increase TVET delivery.
Whilst Australia has made substantial contributions and hence influence, to TVET in Indonesia, its near neighbour, Indonesia and Australia are in different spaces in relation to TVET policy and development. Indonesia is aiming to increase the provision of TVET to young people through private and public institutions, which in turn impacts on the preparation and professional development of TVET teachers and trainers. Australia is emphasising the private provision of TVET rather than public provision, especially in one state, Victoria, and with minimal teacher/trainer preparation and professional development.
This article explores the approaches taken by the two systems to train the next generation of TVET teachers. It also draws upon the Bandung Declaration developed by Cairns & Malloch (2013b) at the UPI 2012 conference which emphasised the importance of quality TVET teaching, delivered by capable, professionally developed teachers with relevant pedagogical and industrial knowledge and experience. Such recommendations and goals form a basis for the critique and consideration of the TVET policies in Indonesia and Australia.

1 Introduction

The preparation of teachers for the vocational education and training sector has been a subject of growing concern by educators and researchers in Australia. Australia has relatively low unemployment, a highly casualised workforce and an increasingly deregulated training sector. In a population of 21.3m, in Australia, there are 470,000 in apprenticeships and traineeships nationally, with 122,000 in Victoria. At the same time, youth unemployment at 17% (and higher in some regions) for 15 – 19 year olds, remains steadily higher than the national average of 5.3%, for Australia (Kwek, 2013).

Table 1: Government subsided enrolments by provider type, 2008-2012

As evident in the Table above, student enrolments in the VET Sector in Australia, indicate a massive shift from the government or public funded sector to the private training sector. For many in the public education sectors this raises concerns for access, equity, quality and accountability. Stephen Ball (2007, 126 -127) writes of this shift in the school sector in the UK, with consequent shifts in values, economic priorities, forms of curriculum, testing and evaluation. As he notes, the shift to privatisation

“… involves changes in the meaning and experience of education, what it means to be a teacher and a learner, but is also part of a broader social dislocation. It changes who we are and our relation to what we do, entering into all aspects of our everyday practices and thinking – into the ways that we think about ourselves and our relations to others, even our most intimate social relations. It is changing the framework of possibilities within which we act. This is not just a process of reform`; it is a process of social transformation.”

Such a shift impacts on the students, the teachers and trainers as well as the wider community. There is increasing government encouragement for market driven private provision of VET and consequently, staff numbers and courses in public sector VET have been cut dramatically over the past two years. Questions are being raised as to the quality of the training provided particularly in the private sector. Within this context, Australian preparation of TVET teachers appears as minimalist, requiring a basic qualification at an Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF Council 2013, Wheelahan & Curtin 2010) level lower than an undergraduate degree. The acceptance of a minimum level qualification for VET educators combined with increasing casualisation of the workforce contributes to their deprofessionalisation in a system experiencing policy, systemic and financial challenges.

Changes observed in Australia include an impact on the TVET teachers and trainers. The initial training is of variable delivery quality and is at a low level for entry to a profession. Professional development is difficult to access given the steady erosion of working conditions, with casualised and portfolio work.

Indonesia has a well established and increasing private provision of TVET. The table below indicates the preponderance of the provision of education by private organisations, as seen in the number of Academies, polytechnics and advanced schools.

Table 2: Public and private tertiary educational institutions in Indonesia.

Indonesia is emphasising more vocational education and training for young people to raise the status of TVET. ‘The government, aiming to reduce high unemployment rates among educated youth, pledged to reverse the current share of high school students, from 70 percent general to 70 percent vocational by 2015’ (Newhouse & Suryadarma 2009, 2). The plan applies to upper secondary general schools versus vocational schools. This ambitious goal will contribute to new demands for TVET teachers in Indonesia. This is reinforced by the UNEVOC World TVET country profile (2014) which identifies two key challenges for Indonesia’s TVET system as:

−   Lack of sufficient correspondence between the practical training and skills taught in TVET institutions and the demands of the labour market; and

−   Uneven balance between teachers with academic and practitioner background in TVET institutions, where the latter are underrepresented.

The Teacher Law of 2005 requires that all teachers complete a four-year higher education degree by 2015 (UNESCO-IBE 2011). This is an ambitious goal.

In Australia, the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment is the qualification for people teaching in technical and vocational education. Whilst the Certificate IV is not necessarily a requirement for employment, employers generally expect staff to gain the qualification within the first few years (Wheelahan & Curtain, 2010, 33). This has been a cause for discussion and debate. It is estimated that ‘nearly all trainers/teachers and assessors in TAFE, and about 80% of those in the non – TAFE vocational education and training sector, hold a post – school qualification. ‘However, not all vocational education and training practitioners engaging in training and assessment activities hold the minimum qualification required for vocational education and training teaching (the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment) or an equivalent qualification.’ (Productivity Commission 2011, cited in the National Skill Standards Council, paper on Improving Vocational Education and Training, 2013, 5). It is estimated that approximately 65% of TAFE teachers, trainers, assessors are employed as casuals and work in both training and industry (National Skills Standards Council 2013).

Concerns arise as to the quality of the training and assessment in VET if the teachers, trainers, and assessors are not well qualified for their roles. The quality and competency of the VET workforce is questioned particularly in relation to ‘the depth and breadth of the professional capabilities of trainers/teachers and assessors’ (National Skills Standards Council 2013, 11) This particularly relates to being able to address the needs of disadvantaged learners, to conduct recognition of prior learning and work based delivery. In reporting views of VET teachers, one respondent notes the lack of deeper learning:

“The Certificate IV is a minimum qualification for a trainer and its advantage is its national accreditation, but it does not encourage reflective thinking and ignores similar higher level cognitive abilities.” (Wheelahan & Curtain 2010, 34)

It is also possible for trainers/teachers to work under supervision, and the NSSC review notes concerns as to whether the skills and knowledge of those supervised are sufficient to teach, and suggest that these people should have the enterprise trainer skill set. Other issues include maintenance of industry currency (National Skills Standards Council 2013, 28)

2 Trends in the preparation of TVET teachers in Indonesia

The provision of education to its population of 246.6m is a major task and the development of teachers is key to being able to achieve this. Kurnia et al (2014) provide an overview of the regulations and qualifications required for TVET teachers and lecturers in Indonesia. There are two key regulations, from 2005 and 2007 which apply to all educational institutions, therefore vocational education is included. All teachers have to be qualified for their profession which includes the standard of academic qualifications and competencies of teachers.

The teacher standards (Permendiknas 16/2007), among other things, define the core competencies of normative and adaptive subject (social and natural sciences) teachers in vocational schools together with those for teachers in general upper secondary schools. Core competency standards for teachers of vocational subjects are not defined. These competencies are divided into four areas: (1) pedagogic, (2) personal, (3) social and (4) professional competencies (see table 3).

Table 3: Teachers’ core competences

There are competencies for all teachers, with no specifically identified competencies for vocational teachers who do not have specific identified competencies. There is an emphasis on education, equity, and a concern for students, ethics and professionalism. Trends for preparation of TVET teachers focus on qualifications, competencies to be demonstrated, knowledge and skills, industrial experience, and pedagogy – understanding and teaching ability. Vocational teachers are expected to have a bachelor’s degree with a relevant subject area, have passed their teacher certification, and have worked as a teacher for a minimum of 5 years (Kurnia 2013, 43). The Professional Teacher Certification process, is a practical training programme for TVET teachers, a main path for becoming a professional teacher with a higher salary form 2015 (Kurnia 2013, 43). The Teachers Core Competencies provide for a positive framework; the realities of how this translates into practice are more challenging.

Newhouse & Suryadarma (2009) raised challenging points from their research into choice of senior secondary schooling in Indonesia, noting that private vocational schools tended to attract the lowest scoring students. They considered the choices of schooling and the impacts of such choices on the wages of the graduates, finding that male public vocational graduates were experiencing a drop in wages. They consider this may be reflective of shifts in the types of skills required in the Indonesian economy. Their research questions the wisdom in the policy goals to have a majority of students in vocational education and whether such an undertaking is possible. It also has implications for TVET teachers, especially their preparation to be able to educate and prepare for work, a diverse range of numerous students.

“Most importantly, the analysis provides little evidence to support the current expansion of vocational education. The results fail to show systematic benefits for public vocational graduates compared to public general graduates, despite reasonably precise estimates. Furthermore, the wage penalty for male vocational graduates, in recent years, has increased dramatically. This decline has occurred as Indonesia’s industrial sector has sharply slowed and the service sector has become increasingly important to economic growth. This suggests that it may be worthwhile to review, and possibly reform, vocational and technical education in male-dominated subjects.” (Newhouse & Suryadarma 2009, 33)

The goals to increase TVET participation for secondary students to 70% of upper secondary students by 2025 (Kurnia 2013, 29) remain, albeit a major challenge to achieve. As is the case internationally, Indonesia is concerned to raise the skill levels of the populace and is investing to achieve this. Indonesia spends 20% of its annual budget on education, a major commitment. Nurkholis & Petrik (2014) argue that TVET could be improved by focusing more on didactics and learner centred teaching methods in the training and professional development of teachers. They also note that TVET practitioners should be encouraged to research best practice in teaching. The competency based Indonesian Qualifications Framework (IQF) provides a framework for TVET, for learners and the teachers. It also provides opportunities for learner centred approaches to be used rather than teacher directed approaches. There are excellent examples of learner centred teaching and action oriented learning in TVET (Nurkholis & Petrik 2014) which could serve as models for the sector.

Current issues include how collaboration with business is refining the demand focus of TVET, and how the technological revolution requires an adequate fit between TVET supply and demand. There are also challenges in matching standards and certification towards mutual recognition; industry certifications and occupational standards are important in augmenting the quality of TVET institutions.

3 Trends in the preparation of TVET teachers in Australia

A study by the National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER) put the total number of VET workers (TAFE and non-TAFE) at about one million (Mlotkowski & Guthrie 2008). This is a large number of people working as teachers, trainers and assessors in vocational education and training. The workforce has become increasingly casualised and with the increasing privatisation of the sector, there are fewer opportunities for professional development or further qualification updates. The minimum and indeed the maximum qualification for VET teachers, trainers and assessors are the Certificate IV Training Assessment and Education. (AQF Council 2013, 15)

The Certificate level in the Australian Qualifications Framework is quite a low level (Level 4 of the Framework which goes to Level 10 (PhD) at its highest). In January 2013, the Australian Government issued a revised version of the Australian Qualifications Framework. Of relevance to this discussion, is that the basic VET Teacher Qualification, Certificate IV, is 3 levels below a Bachelor Degree (AQF Council 2013, 15). The descriptor of Level IV below indicates the expected skills and knowledge.

Table 4: The Certificate IV Qualification Type Descriptor

Of particular note in these specifications of the Certificate IV level are the two last sections, namely the “limited responsibility for organisation of others”, “with limited responsibility for the quantity and quality of the output of others in a team within limited parameters” and finally the key aspect of the “volume of learning” needed to complete the qualification, specified as “The volume of learning of a Certificate IV is typically 0.5 – 2 years”.

This emphasis that holders of this qualification should exercise “limited” responsibility (mentioned twice) and operate in apparently assisting (or we can assume, “teaching”) others “within limited parameters” does not appear to offer anything like the responsibilities or autonomy educators should aspire to or have as teachers.

The period of time for the delivery and “volume of learning” for the Certificate IV is described as being between 0.5 to 2 years of instructional/study time (with possible Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and experience is a key quality issue in the Australian scene. Many Registered Training Organisations (RTOs), that is, private companies legally recognized to offer training through accredited Training Packages, including the Certificate IV, offer a wide and varying range of hours of instruction and volume of learning for the delivery of the Certificate IV (Cairns & Malloch 2013a).

Guthrie, McNaughton & Gamlin (2011), Guthrie (2010), and Wheelahan & Curtin (2010) have made key contributions to research into VET teachers in Australia. Wheelahan & Curtain (2010) argue from the basis of their research into VET teachers, for a program to develop VET teachers from induction through entry level qualification, that followed by a higher level qualification in their area of vocational specialisation. Guthrie (2010) advocates an end to the minimalist and regulatory approach towards a basic qualification so that other qualifications can be accessed. Ongoing professional development is also advocated. Smith and Grace (2011) and Smith (2005) have similarly raised concerns about the preparation of vocational educators with particular reference to the lack of pedagogical qualifications that industry qualifications are higher than those for vocational educators, who have been left out of the focus on VET in Australia.

Two smaller scale studies also contribute to the reflections on TVET teachers and trainers, Cairns & Malloch’s (2013a) project into perceptions and the preparation of VET teachers and trainers and Helmy’s (2015) case studies on the work of TVET professionals in partnership programs with industries and other organisations in Indonesia. The learning from these studies contributes to considerations for future development of TVET professionals and teachers. They note the challenge to develop VET teachers and their dual identities.

4 Findings from the field

Participants in Cairns and Malloch’s study (2013a)were from a cross section of public and private providers of training in the state of Victoria, from teachers to Chief Executive Officers, urban and rural locations within one state in Australia. Interviews with these stakeholders provided a range of responses to the training provided by the Certificate IV in Training and Assessment, and its revised form as the Certificate IV in Training and Education. A key theme emerging from the interviews was the need to meet the requirements for staff to have the Certificate IV qualification. Many of the managers were amenable to achieving this as quickly as possible. This meant that the course, designed to have a more extended period of time, is frequently delivered in very short time frames. Ensuring teachers’ awareness of compliance to meet the regulatory requirements was regarded as important.

A Program Director – Health at a rural Technical and Further Education Institute saw the role of the Certificate IV as establishing boundaries for teachers within a system which requires compliance:

“So, if I talked about firstly is the training of teachers. I think the most important thing is that they understand – at least of have an understanding of teaching to begin with, so at a minimum of a Cert IV in Training and Assessment to understand the packaging rules and what’s, you know, what they are allowed to and not allowed to teach to and from then from there I think they then need to understand the system we work in, and the compliance issues, but foremost they need to actually understand the packaging rules and what their boundaries are for being allowed to deliver the qualifications we put forward. From there, there’s quite a lot of compliance associated and a lot of administration associated with as well these days.”

There was criticism of the Certificate IV as a preparation to be a teacher/trainer. The Director of a private registered VET consultancy was critical: “If the Cert IV was taught well it would address – or at least at an adequate entry level – these values (with reference to quality, professional development, professionalism and pedagogy) but we have lost sight of what teaching well is.”

Thus there was a concern for a focus on teaching and on the learner. Learning was a key concern for the Executive Director of a VET Professional Association: “The key challenge is the situation of the learner,’ focusing ‘on the learner is central and paramount.” This stakeholder listed being able to facilitate a learning process, understanding how adults learn, being able to establish engagement between the teacher and student, and an understanding of adult learning and pedagogy as important.

The Certificate IV in Training and Assessment has been updated to a Certificate IV Training and Education which was regarded as an improvement on the previous program. Industry currency was regarded as important, with some teachers/trainers working part time in industry, others hoping that their employers would support industry experience and others coming up with innovative ways to update staff. The Director of Industry Programmes (Trade Courses), explained how Automotive VET teachers “keep in touch” with Industry: “We….in the automotive department over at XXX Campus, they deliver training like that, plus the boys spend a lot of time out in industry”.

For the teachers the training was frequently a positive, “New VET teachers like the training packages because they guide them.” For a group of teachers working in a registered private training organisation, they emphasised an exploration of teaching as important, asking “what is good teaching?”

Deprofessionalisation was an issue with one teacher involved in delivering the Certificate IV emphasising that: “It is a challenge to get people to see VET teaching as a profession in itself.” In the shift from public to private, from regulated to deregulated, marketised training, concerns still remain as to quality, equity, access, and learning of the learners, and importantly a consideration as to the people who teach, train and assess the learners as to their professional capability to teach and to support the learners and to also advance the vocations.

The views expressed by the stakeholders in the study of perceptions of the training of VET teachers/trainers/assessors varied in relation to their place in the sector. CEOs, and Directors tended to a more critical view of the Certificate IV as not being sufficient, managers presented a cross section of views, pleased to meet compliance and quality requirements however pleased if staff had other qualifications. Teachers, especially those with a range of qualifications were concerned about the quality and calibre of the delivery of the Certificate IV and the type of teachers emerging from such programs; many topped up the teaching they did drawing on their other qualifications and experiences to enhance their teaching.

Whilst Indonesia has its own goals for enhancing delivery of TVET and for the preparation of TVET teachers and trainers, there are indications of TVET overall is moving in similar directions as Australia, that is increasing privatisation, which raises concerns as to the situation of teacher preparation and professional development. In privatised systems it would appear that a high level of teacher preparation is not necessarily a priority. Nurkholis & Petrick (2014) from their research into action learning in TVET are advocating national attention to learner centred teaching and training in TVET.

Helmy (2015) indicates trends in Indonesia which echo those in Australia. Terms such as ‘demand driven’, ‘decentralised management’ and ‘self managing’ organisations resonate.

Table 5: Indonesia: a summary of past and future trends

In Helmy’s study of partnerships between TVET institutions and business organisations, business organisations reported that working with private training institutions enabled them to achieve their goals, a more bespoke service which reiterates the national trend to privatisation.

“And to be honest the service we get from those private training providers who can provide any one of a number of types of management, supervisory or human resource type training [means that] the service we get is much better. They are much more willing to do what we want, rather than us constantly having to try and get what we want.” (IP1, Interviewee, 2011)

Support for the development of professional development materials for TVET teachers benefitted from partnership activities:

“People on the management level were very supportive from the beginning. Anything we needed in connection with training materials and in terms of technology was provided. We sat together with IP3 to set the standards for the training materials from the beginning that would be presented to the vocational schoolteachers to ensure they would be very professional training materials” (VET P3, Interviewee, 2011), (Helmy 2015).

TVET teachers were certainly not being neglected in such regional partnership arrangements.

5 Conclusion

The shift from a public to a private provision of TVET is the current trend, the dominant political and economic agenda, and an agenda in which the user, that is the student and/or the employer pay for the training (Malloch & Cairns, 2014). It is a shift in values, in priorities, in policy, implementation, management and outcomes. Clearly it is not a simple public versus private debate on the provision of TVET; it is more complex and is a shifting landscape. However, concerns for quality remain, as to the quality of the training the students receive and the quality of the preparation of those who will deliver the training. Indonesia is experiencing a similar policy shift. Ball writes of this as ‘destalisation’ (2007) and Jessop of ‘destatization’ (2002) where the state is less involved and where there is a “redrawing of the public-private divide, reallocating tasks, and rearticulating the relationship between organizations and tasks across this divide” (Jessop 2002, 199) Certainly these are the current trends in Australia and in one state in particular, Victoria. This is also evident in Indonesia. What is different is the recognition, certainly by researchers in the field, on the teacher professional education and professional development for learner centred approaches to their work.

The Bandung Manifesto developed at the UPI 2012 Conference (Cairns & Malloch 2013b) emphasises that quality is important for vocational education and training teachers, and that they need to be skilled people in their vocational areas of expertise and to also have had professional teacher education and preparation. There is a concern internationally that TVET teachers, trainers and assessors be well prepared for the work of teaching and learning, that they be able to join other education professionals as equals. The learners in TVET deserve a quality education.

6 Concluding reflections

There are considerations in Australia to raise the level of training required for teachers/trainers/assessors in VET to a Diploma level. Whilst this is still at a lower level than a bachelor degree, and a positive direction, which could provide for an improved preparation for TVET teachers, this is not yet on an official agenda. The quality of TVET education and teaching remains a concern amongst education professionals.

Indonesia has set major goals of shifting a majority of students into TVET and with that the challenge to develop the teachers, a huge undertaking. It is recommended that all countries be mindful of the changes made to TVET systems. It is perhaps an optimistic goal that the professionalism and professional status of teachers in TVET be important in our respective societies.

References

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Citation

Malloch, M. & Helmy, A. (2015). TVET teachers, a reflection on trends in Indonesia and Australia. In: TVET@Asia, issue 5, 1-14. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue5/malloch_helmy_tvet5.pdf (retrieved 23.7.2015).

VET providers are emergent as one of the main and logical providers of labour force training required to revitalise and uphold the attractiveness of this nation’s businesses and industries. On the other hand, to remain competitive in the world market, companies must have highly skilled employees who can keep enterprises economically viable in a global economy. Partnerships between VET providers and industry can be a mutually useful strategy in providing workforce training and in maintaining knowledgeable employees.

The purpose of this study is to explore the existing four VET providers – industry training partnerships in East Java, Indonesia and reveal the impacting factors under three headings of the partnership framework that contributed to their longevity. A comprehensive partnership construct based on three factors (environmental influences upon partnerships, process, the role of people and relationships) were raised in this paper. As Mowen and Kerstetter (2006) have stated the practice of partnerships development has produced a need for comprehension on important factors on success and failure and guidelines of partnership for best practices.

Each partnership involved a public VET provider and industry partner. The collaboration had been in operation for more than three years. Case studies were conducted involving survey questionnaires, document analysis and in-depth interviews with 22 participants including a VET coordinator, industry liaison personnel, and corporate contacts in East Java, Indonesia.

The findings suggest that, while training partnerships diverge in their complexity and breadth, certain commonalities emerge. In collaborating with industry in a global economy era VET providers must remain flexible and resilient to the changes that may occur in the partnership.

Conclusions based on cross case analysis included that VET providers, as academic institutions interested in pursuing partnership or maintaining ongoing partnerships, need to recognise the factors and conditions which lead to the maintenance of long term partnership between the VET provider and industry partner. These consist of: (a) open, continuous communication between partners; (b) flexibility in course delivery i.e. scheduling, course structure, and location; (c) delivery of quality training services and products; (d) timely responses to concerns and inquiries; (e) employing qualified and experienced trainers/instructors; (f) mutual trust; and (g) acknowledgement of the strengths, limitations, and needs of the academic and business worlds. Finally, at the centre of these four partnerships are the personnel required to improve effective working relations both within their institution and with the partner organisation.

1 Introduction

In common with many other countries, Indonesia has put major education and training developments and improvements in place over the past 20 to 30 years to meet rapidly changing sets of economic and social needs (Robinson 1999). The development and provision of quality vocational education and training is essential to support Indonesia in meeting increased regional and global competition. It is also necessary to build up an Indonesian system of vocational education and training to meet the needs of industry. The system demands both quality support and responsiveness to the community and industry needs to best meet these economic objectives. To this end, training should be integrated with initiatives designed to advance and demonstrate quality processes and management. There has already been significant growth in the amount and variety of industry–provider training partnerships in the vocational education and training (VET) sector in Indonesia (Robinson 1999).

The state authority for vocational education and training is shared by the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Manpower of Indonesia, while the planning council, BAPPENAS (National Development Planning Agency), is responsible for the co-ordination of development planning (Alto et al. 2000). Vocational education, which is the responsibility of the Ministry of National Education, aims both to prepare students to continue their study at a higher institute of formal learning, such as a polytechnic institution, and also to prepare students (upon graduation) to enter the workforce immediately. In 1993 the Ministry of Education and Culture introduced the “Link and Match” policy that set out to ‘link the education system to the “world of work”, and match the quantity and quality requirements of manpower in productive sectors’ (Djojonegoro 1994).

The Indonesian authority is interested in Australian approaches to the industry-led and competency-based elements of the Australian VET system as well as the Australian national framework (Cox 2007). Australia moved away from an education based VET system, towards the creation of an enterprise-based system: ‘the emerging vocational education and training system aims to be “business-led” and “enterprise-focused”, with local workplaces being able to determine “what training they receive, from whom and when, where and how” (Mawer 1999). As a result, the national training system is now dedicated to consistency in results assessed against industry and enterprise benchmarks rather than consistency in curricula.

This agenda for the development of VET was reinforced by the Australian Embassy’s Counsellor for Education, Science and Training speaking in Indonesia, ‘vocational education and training symbolized a crucial element of the current workplace and was essential in underlying potential economic development. Furthermore, all countries are reaching a new stage in the improvement of their vocational education and training institutions and systems’ (Shannon 2007).

1.1 Problem statement

A partnership can exist in many forms: formal and informal, public or private, large or small, individual or organisational. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines a partnership as “a relationship resembling a legal partnership and usually involving close cooperation between parties having specified and joint rights and responsibilities”. The key words in the aforementioned definition are “cooperation” and “joint rights and responsibilities”. In order for a partnership to be successful, both parties have to cooperate with one another and they have to share the successes and the challenges that occur over the course of the partnership.

As technology advances in today’s workplace, there is an increasing demand for well-trained entry-level workers. Increasing numbers of companies are establishing partnership training agreements in order to ensure their continued success in the business world, to be competitive, and to improve productivity. The reasons many educational and training institutions such as polytechnics are moving towards these types of training agreements come down to overcoming financial barriers in upgrading equipment, enhancing instructors skills and offsetting enrolment declines in programmes that are viewed as obsolete or in need of improvement.

The phenomenon of reduced finances, whether modest or considerable, obviously serves to challenge institutions of higher education to fulfil the needs of their components (Roueche & Roueche 1999). As funding linked with governmental sources wanes, universities, polytechnics and vocational education schools should seek alternative modes of funding to increase existing revenue and cope with their increasingly complex needs (Ulrich & Barney 1984). Many of those institutions will survive, however, only through fostering collaborative and innovative partnerships which enable them to transform in this high speed information age. The developments of the past decade “highlight the reality that we are living in a time of truly historic transformation – one that is planted in the rise of a knowledge society based largely on the collaborative generation and use of information” (Business-Higher Education Forum 2001, 3).

Conversely, the conditions around higher education funding support including vocational education institutions in Indonesia have improved and greatly increased in 2012 by almost three times compared with 2007 (Bagyo et al. 2012). Nevertheless, the regulatory environment does not make flexible management of financial resources easy in public universities including vocational education institutions. Bagyo et al. (2012) also highlighted that there is a serious issue in financial management as burdensome bureaucratic procedures must be adhered to for all financial transactions and revenues from any partnerships activities must first be deposited to the state treasury which is considered to be an obstacle in the higher education institutions cash flow, especially for managing an existing partnership with industry that need speedy responses in financial management.

For several years, universities and vocational education institutions i.e. polytechnics, have depended on government funding for their financial plan support. The days when those institutions could assume they were an independent entity with no need to make contact with the outside world are long gone. The ivory tower requires assistance from the private sector. The fostering of partnerships to meet fiscal needs will become more and more a matter of course for academia (Rogers et al. 1999). Glover (1999) added that the decision to collaborate is often one of necessity, since institutions need to obtain resources from alternative sources to survive.

From that time, the coupling of companies and higher education to satisfy newly emerged mutual needs has been continually growing. Companies are viewing collaborations with universities including vocational education institutions as a means for employee training in addition to enabling recruitment and retention. On the other hand, higher education including vocational education and training institutions, recognising the growing segment working adult students, is looking at the potential for increased enrolment and associated revenue streams. The combination of external forces and internal pressures has created a rich opportunity to explore the dynamics of employment development partnerships involving traditional academic institutions (Bok 2003; Karen 2004; Meisler 2004; Meister 2003).

Some industry-higher education institution partnerships have been mutually beneficial while others have not. The question is becoming not whether partnerships are good, but how to make them work (McLaughlin 2004).

Creating a partnership between two entities that may have different goals can be a challenging process. The company and the vocational educational institution have to work together to define the relationship, determine methods of collaboration, and establish shared goals, so both organisations can reap the benefits from the partnership.

In an era when economic supremacy and financial control have been increasingly assumed by globalisation in capital interests, education and training is one of the few areas in which governments are still able to put forth a relatively strong influence. ”As governments lose control over various levers on their national economies … they frequently turn to education and training as two areas where they do still maintain control” (Green 1999, 56). Anderson (2006) argues that as globalization erodes the traditional powers of nation-states, governments have increasingly relied on education and training to strengthen national comparative economic advantage.

The focus of this research is upon VET and industry partnerships, an initiative which the Indonesian government embarked upon in 1997 (Ministry of Education and Culture of The Republic of Indonesia 1997). As part of the agenda of modernisation of the vocational education and training system for the purpose of achieving economic competitiveness and meet industry needs, Indonesia has set about developing partnerships between industry and the training sector. Mitchell and Young (2001) argue that successful partnering is related to the ability to respond to the needs of change, continuous learning and innovation. In describing the formation and nature of partnerships, there is typically a mix of inter-organisational (for example, environment, structure, level of competition and change) and interpersonal factors (for example trust, friendships, senior executive support) at work. As also noted by Callan and Ashworth (2004), successful VET industry – provider training partnerships include the effective management of an extensive scale of environmental, training and people issues.

Various issues form the improvement of the partnering result. Lendrum (2003) stated that training partnerships are formed by a range of environmental factors, and readiness to adjust and alter the training approach. He also argues that the principal factors ensuring the success of all collaborations are the attitudes of people and the interactions amongst them, which as a result are researched within three domains:

• Environmental influences upon partnerships
• Changes to the training model (Process)
• The role of people and relationships

This qualitative research investigates an existing VET provider – industry partnerships, the development and implementation of partnerships between the VET system and industry in East Java, Indonesia, a focus of national and international significance.

1.2 Research questions

To achieve the goal of the study, the following research questions, under the three headings of partnership framework, were investigated:

1. What are the common environmental factors impacting upon the establishment of the partnership and the participants’ readiness to partner which encompass the kind of partnerships that have emerged; modification in relation to the size and location of the VET providers and industry partner; reputations that affects the operation of the institution; and the organisational cultural issues at work?
2. What are the main drivers for training; how do training models vary in their levels of customisation, flexibility, managerial arrangements and the formality of the training liaison; what is the perceived return on training investment for the industry partner; can successful training models be identified in these partnerships?
3. What skills are required by VET providers to develop and maintain partnerships?

1.3 Research aims

The purpose of this research is to investigate and document the role of partnerships in VET delivery, with a specific focus on the characteristics of the partners, and the benefits of the partnerships. The project also aims to examine the capability of e xisting training institutions and vocational education and training (VET) providers including polytechnics and vocational training centres to respond to industry needs through adjustments in their approach to training partnerships in East Java Indonesia at the present.

1.4 Conceptual framework and methodology

The methodology used in this study is a qualitative and descriptive study utilising relevant literature and questionnaires to gain information regarding characteristics and relationships and primary beneficiaries of VET provider – industry that have been created in partnership training agreements. A case-study approach was chosen for this study as it allowed the researcher to describe the partnership’s impacting factors including benefits and challenges in sufficient detail to reach conclusions.

The theoretical framework for this research is informed by a constructivist paradigm, and employs a qualitative research methodology to gain knowledge of the perceptions of case-study participants implementing VET partnerships in Indonesia (Mertens 2010). This study was assisted by considering what we know about the notion of “partnering” and how collaborations amongst stakeholders can produce positive outcomes. The existing literature on partnerships and how they have evolved over previous decades is essential to understanding how today’s VET providers and industry might meet the needs of a complex, global work environment.

The multiple case-study method is used in this research. A multiple case-study enables the researcher to investigate differences inside and between cases with the aim of replicate finding across cases. As comparisons will be depicted, it is necessary for the cases to be selected cautiously so the researcher will be able to foresee similar results across cases, or predict contrasting results based on theory (Yin 2003).

Two primary sources of data were examined for this case study, and these sources were the partnership stakeholder perceptions and documents from the partnership. The population involved in this case study were the staff members of the vocational education and training institutions and the selected corporation. The four VET institutions in this study were VET P1, VET P2, VET P3, and VET P4. Four companies were involved in the partnership; IP1, IP2, IP3, and IP 4. Twenty-two individuals were identified as having significant involvement in training partnership activities. Eighteen of the twenty-two were from VET providers and four from industry partners. A survey questionnaire analysis, a comprehensive review of the literature, and interview questions were developed guided by an established interview protocol that yielded information for answering the three research questions.

1.5 Significance of the research

The results of this study provide an understanding of great import to campus officials, educators in higher education, educational fund-raisers, education policy maker and industry, of the descriptive and qualitative methodology and reveals how different entities cooperate, thus yielding profound understanding of educational partnerships including VET – industry partnerships.

The vocational education sector has a significant social and economic role in the development of emerging nations. From a social service point of view, demand for VET stems from a need by individuals to attain their full potential and contribute to their own social and cultural improvement. On the other hand demand motivated by economic goals stems from the income that accrues to individuals, communities, enterprises and nations that possess superior skills and knowledge (Ferrier & Anderson 1998). For Indonesia, training partnerships with industries are an historical characteristic of the Indonesian vocational education and training system, allowing for development of useful research findings in areas of VET, partnerships and community and national development.

1.6 Contribution to knowledge

Firstly, this study contributes to knowledge by offering an analysis of the VET – industry partnerships, secondly by making recommendations for improved practice, and lastly through the development of resources to be used by the VET sector and industry partners in staff development for employees. It is intended for these resources to provide staff with better insights into their organisation’s mission, values, standards, policies and strategies as a result of being involved in a training programme; supporting development of staff skills, knowledge and self-confidence, as well as enhancing career paths and providing access to a culture in the workplace that better encourages learning and innovation to advance work.

This study has significance for VET and the wider education agenda in Indonesia in the very first instance and makes a vital contribution to international understanding and knowledge of VET and partnerships.

2 Findings

The cases provide a rich opportunity to explore common themes and emerging patterns regarding the partnering process and the issues of successful VET partners. This research suggests that there is not a unilateral approach or set of steps to ensure such partnerships between VET providers and industry will be sustained. While the cases involve similar partnerships, they reflect nuances in their creation and implementation. In each case, challenges emerged for the VET providers and partners, created by the unique expectations and situations.

This study uncovers essential factors of existing partnering shared by the cases that contribute to partnership longevity. Figure 1 below shows the framework enhanced with the findings from the analysis, recognising impacting factors in the partnership’s lifecycles.

Figure 1: Partnership Impacting Factors Framework Applied to Analysis

2.1 Environmental factors

The first research question guiding this study was, “What are the common environmental factors impacting upon the establishment of the partnership and the participants’ readiness to partner?” The cases confirm the pervasive view in the literature that educational prospects for collaboration between academic institutions and industries emerge in various ways (Spangler 2002).

The highest ranking benefits anticipated for the higher education institution including VET institutions for establishing training partnerships were real life work experience for both staff and students, finding future employers for the students, practical application for academic theory and problem-solving skills, generating extra income, affording staff and trainers firm connections with industry; and extending the staff skills. For companies and employers, the benefits included better industry capability to concentrate on their core business, and coping with skills inadequacy.

The study also revealed in all four cases that training partnerships involved mainly a VET provider and industry situated in local geographic proximity from one to the other, even though some partnerships were interprovincial. In one case a VET and industry partnership revealed opportunities that had emerged without proactive solicitation by the VET provider. The existence of prior relationships between leaders in the VET institution and the company and an emerging need by the industries combined to create the unanticipated partnering opportunity.

The partnerships mostly operated under formal partnership agreement. VET providers stepped up the attempt to obtain service and training contracts with a range of customers from government and industry. Moreover, respondent VET providers’ in the survey described their wish to expand and be involved in more collaborations including joint ventures with a range of organisations and businesses. They assumed that joint ventures were a way of demonstrating their capacity to work with a variety of partners in an industrial atmosphere.

2.2 Training factors

The second research question guiding this study was, “What are the main drivers for training; how do training models vary in their levels of customisation, flexibility, managerial arrangements and the formality of the training liaison; what is the perceived return on training investment for the industry partner; can successful training models be identified in these partnerships?” Hagen (2002) stated that higher education institutions including VET institutions are considered to be one of the most important sources of training among external training providers. Government agencies and industries also consider VET institutions as external providers of training and development, reflecting the need for continuous professional development, flexibility and a continuous adaptability to change (Mavin & Bryans 2000).

The research examined the capability of VET providers to react to industry needs throughout their training adjustments. The findings exhibited that:

• The highest-ranking expected benefits for higher education institutions including VET institutions were customised training programme development, moreover, extensive levels of flexibility and a range of training delivery models had been used, including the traditional teaching approach and modern approach i.e. computer-based and website learning. As stated by Dawe (2003) usage of diversity in training and learning approaches in big companies resulted in successful training activities.
• Customisation at a high level was a significant attraction of these training collaborations as corporations required the training to be highly customised and contextualised to meet their needs. Lakes and Burns (2012) argued that whilst industry has always been linked into social collaborations in vocational education, they demand customised skill-based training from higher education institutions including VET institutions.
• A range of administrative procedures were used by both VET providers and industry partners to increase the intensity and maintain high levels of communication in the partnership which, in turn, developed high levels of trust. Accordingly, industry respondents in the interview considered the training flexibility given by VET providers to be high-class training.

2.3 People factors

The third research question guiding this study was, “what skills are required by VET providers to develop and maintain partnerships?” The literature has shown that partnerships often begin at the individual level, where participants have some personal tie that initiates the relationship. Personal connections and networking played important roles in coming up with partnering opportunities for VET provider. Markert (2011, 155) tells us that partnering is ”an effort to draw out the best in people to achieve a successful project outcome for all parties involved…to successful partnership”.

VET providers or industry partners emphasised the meaning of possessing high levels of mutual trust within the partnership, as mutual trust is the main driver for expanding collaboration. Corresponding to this, industry partners were unwavering in their belief that the strong point of their individual interactions with training administrators and the instructors from the VET provider was absolutely essential in establishing a sustainable and progressive partnership.

Collaborations were not expected to be highly profitable, even though successful collaborations were defined as financially sustainable; to some degree, VET providers and industry managers talked of a ‘win-win’ solution at first being the primary goal, whereby a blend of financial and non-financial results resulted from the training collaboration.

Successful partnerships were described as the result of good quality cooperation between the two institutions which essentially rested on the good relations and communication between several key people from both sides. Both the VET provider and industry partner sought to encourage one another in fulfilling their existing and emergent business goals. To this end they used each other’s contacts to increase business opportunities.

As Business-Higher Education Forum (2001, 33) reported, the secret to making partnerships work is the people involvement on both sides, “articulate to each other what their goals are … make sure that there are good and open lines of communication with the people who are responsible for the programme”.

3 Challenges

The collaboration efforts were not free of problems. The stakeholders listed several obstacles that hindered their respective partnerships. The most common challenges for VET providers were timelines for communication timelines, and resource availability. The main challenges for industry corporation were timelines of project work completion, lack of project work completion, of transparency regarding mutually agreed objectives, and differing partnership goals. VET provider respondents stated that adjustments were made as the partnership progressed and challenges were worked out eventually but it took a long time. Respondents from industry corporation reported in the interviews that steady communication was required between the two partners and lots of meetings and multiple conversations helped resolve the challenges.

Tishuk (2012) concurred that challenges may occur continuously as well as constant change in the partnership. “Accepting and managing the resulting evolution will refresh partnerships, breed creativity and allow public/private relationships – which lie at the heart of these endeavours – to develop naturally” (Tishuk 2012, 113).

4 Conclusions

Four conclusions were derived from the findings of the study:

1. Respondents from all four VET providers in the survey and interviews indicated that their staff and trainers’ were enthusiastic in updating their knowledge and skills in line industry best practice, and the latest developments. VET providers strongly supported their training staff in paying visits to and meeting the industry administrators frequently. This was specifically the case in relation to the management of various training partnerships and other forms of training. A number of staff were taken on as secondments to industry. Many used opportunities for on-the-job training and assessment to enable them to remain in touch with their industries.
2. As higher education institutions and companies operate in two very different environments and different cultures, the problems of communication and loss of focus towards goals are not unusual and most likely to be expected. Therefore, state-owned VET providers endeavoured to fulfil industry requirements by lessening teaching staff’s barriers created by rigid institutional policies, cultures, and protocols. To allow more customisation and flexibility in training activities, the training systems and bureaucracy in VET providers were clearly being pressured and compressed.
3. To become more effective as training providers, VET providers should be familiar with a number of realities about businesses in Indonesia today. Business owners underscored that, industry is in a condition of continuous revolution in an extremely competitive marketplace. Consequently, industries need the services of VET providers who recognise this condition, and who have the passion and willingness to carry on with them.
4. Significant impact strength factors in training partnerships included: open, continuous communication between partners; timely responses to industry’s concerns and inquiries; flexibility in time schedules, course-structure and delivery, and training locations; provision of a quality training product; employment of qualified and experienced trainers and administrative staff; mutual trust between partners; and acknowledgment of the strengths, limitations, and needs of both VET providers and industry partners.

Corwin, Corbin and Mittelmark (2012) concluded that the elements of success in partnerships involved a clear mission from both partners, high commitment at management levels, a comprehensive plan for operation, trust and coordination, continuous personnel communication, and the celebration of ongoing partnership accomplishments.

“Partnering is an art-form, derivative of relationship building more generally and such partnerships will necessarily ebb and flow” (Tishuk 2012, 119).

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Citation

Abdullah, H. (2013). The role of VET providers in training partnerships with industry in East Java, Indonesia. In: TVET@Asia, issue 1, 1-14. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue1/alias_hassan_tvet1.pdf (retrieved 30.5.2013).