TVET personnel – teachers and trainers in companies, vocational schools and other educational contexts – are crucial for enhancing and assuring the quality of vocational education and training. Yet vocational teacher education has been facing challenges over the past few decades. Whereas the need for qualified TVET personnel is indisputable, many countries face a severe shortage of qualified TVET personnel and have therefore implemented various pathways to enter this profession. However, these personnel need to be equipped with future-oriented competencies to provide action-oriented and work-based learning. They also need to be broadly diversified and multi-professional, and able to bridge the gap between vocational theory and practice (Lipsmeier 2013). They also need to develop the specific competences required to integrate learners from different educational, social and cultural backgrounds.

Nowadays, in light of manifold global disruptions, TVET personnel face the additional challenge of providing relevant, learner-centered training to strengthen TVET’s responsiveness to current and future skills needs amid groundbreaking changes in the world of work (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2019). Not only do they need to upgrade their teaching and learning approaches in light of new demands resulting from economic and technical transformations (e.g., digitalization, 4th industrial revolution, etc.), but they also need to strengthen students’ resilience and capacity to cope during mounting social, economic and ecological crises. As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been an unprecedented push towards e-learning, which will likely have a sustained impact on how learning is organized as well as the need to make learning material more accessible.

Authors contributing to this 16th issue of TVET@Asia have highlighted the impacts of a variety of global disruptions on current and future trends in the world of work and the world of learning in their countries. While the specific challenges mentioned by the authors differ by country and region, in all cases disruptive events have triggered a need to reconsider the roles of TVET teaching staff and, consequently, how teaching staff are trained and supported. A summary of the papers included in this issue of TVET@Asia is provided below, first focusing on the country context and then highlighting the authors’ contributions to the question of how to organize TVET teacher training to meet the needs of the future of work and learning.

In Vietnam, the main trigger for reform has been rapid economic development, which has driven higher demand for consumer goods (including multimedia design products) and thus an associated growth in the complexity of manufacturing processes. Workers, including in the multimedia design field, no longer assume responsibility for the entire production process, from taking client orders to delivering the final product, but are instead involved in one phase of the work process and must cooperate with other workers in other phases to produce final outputs.

XUAN TRA NGUYEN and PHUONG CHI DIEP (University of Technology and Education, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam) argue that the world of learning needs to reflect these changes. The current product-oriented training model used in Vietnam to teach TVET programs (such as multimedia design) needs to be updated to incorporate features of the work-process-oriented training model, which developed countries such as Germany implement. Nguyen and Diep propose a new training model for the multimedia design field, which combines product-oriented and work-process-oriented training, and argue that effective implementation of the model will require parallel shifts in the competencies and training that TVET teachers receive. The authors outline six “essential” competencies that multimedia design teachers need to deliver future-oriented skills training and also outline how TVET policies and practices must change to ensure that TVET teachers gain the professional and pedagogical competencies needed for the future of their own work.

In Indonesia, rapid technological change and global competition in the era of Industry 4.0 have led the government to issue a Presidential Instruction concerning the revitalization of vocational high schools to improve the quality of human resources and enhance national competitiveness. One important aspect of the revitalization program involves improving TVET teacher quality.

AGUS SETIAWAN and R. AAM HAMDANI (Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia) analyze the current development process of professionalizing vocational teacher education in Indonesia to assess the effectiveness of the new professional vocational teacher education program in addressing the needs of Industry 4.0. Based on a literature review followed by two online focus group discussions on the topics of professional vocational teacher education and vocational teacher competencies in the era of Industry 4.0, their findings show that, while there is some evidence of innovation in the professional vocational teacher education program both in terms of pre-service as well as in-service training, further innovation is necessary, especially with regards to improving cooperation with industry.

 In Botswana, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced many education and training institutions to switch from traditional face-to-face classes to e-learning methods. Transition to an online environment poses special challenges for the delivery of TVET courses, since TVET involves the development of hands-on skills as well as theoretical learning. Developing countries face further challenges in making the transition in terms of the preparedness of their training systems and the availability of digital technologies for online teaching.

JERALD HONDONGA (Gaborone University College of Law & Professional Studies), TAWANDA CHINENGUNDU (University of Pretoria), and PHYLLIS KUDZAI MAPHOSA (Gaborone University College of Law & Professional Studies) present the findings of their research concerning the readiness and propensities of Botswana Private Tertiary Education Providers (BAPTEP) for using online teaching platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on an analysis of questionnaire responses from 119 TVET lecturers and students from 4 BAPTEP colleges, they found that most BAPTEP institutions were not prepared in terms of having e-learning platforms in place, whilst most lecturers lacked preparation and training in using online platforms to deliver emergency remote teaching. Most TVET students also encountered challenges to participating in e-learning owing to lack of internet connectivity, lack of a computer or laptop, and/or lack of training in the use of their college’s online learning platform. Based on these findings, the authors make recommendations for how to support BAPTEP institutions’ transition to e-learning – a mode of TVET delivery that the authors believe is inevitable in the future.

Palestine is another country where the COVID-19 pandemic has precipitated a rapid transition to e-learning. Yet while Palestine’s Human Resources Development Strategy emphasizes the importance of integrating ICT in TVET to enhance TVET quality, the country’s TVET sector continues to face many challenges which have consequences for education and educational policies, including teachers’ lack of ICT skills and competencies, lack of an appropriate infrastructure, and the political conflict and Israeli occupation.

MALAKA SAMARA (Logica Consultancy Center) explores and analyzes the Palestinian government’s new plan and mechanism for integrating e-learning in TVET through equipping TVET teachers with e-learning knowledge, skills and competencies. She also examines TVET teachers’ practices, attitudes, and success stories in relation to e-learning. Her findings, based on interviews with 60 TVET teachers from 10 secondary vocational schools, indicate that most TVET teachers of technical subjects in Palestine have basic ICT knowledge and skills, but require training on how to implement didactical or methodological concepts in e-learning in TVET. Consequently, TVET authorities in Palestine must take into consideration the ICT competencies that TVET teachers already have, as well as the competencies that they must still acquire, before designing and providing training. Based on her findings, Samara proposes an E-Competence Framework (E-CF) and outlines eight key skills, competencies and attitudes that TVET teachers in Palestine require for delivering quality e-learning programs.

In Germany, demographic developments have resulted in an aging population and consequently a shortage of skilled workers, which in turn has prompted the German government to provide vocational training opportunities to disadvantaged youth with poor school-leaving qualifications or personal and social problems.

Yet, as KATHARINA PEINEMANN (University of Rostock) points out, TVET teachers in Germany’s transitional system, where these disadvantaged young people study, do not currently receive training to help them deal with the challenges of supporting this vulnerable target group. Based on findings from interviews held with 65 teachers from 11 vocational schools in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Peinemann outlines the key competencies that TVET teachers need to support them in their work with disadvantaged young learners. She also proposes reforms to TVET teacher training programs in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania to ensure that the competencies identified are integrated into each phase of teacher training.

These authors’ valuable contributions to this issue of TVET@Asia, offering insights from Southeast Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Europe, provide food for thought and promising practices on how to address the challenges of ensuring that TVET teaching staff have the skills and personal qualities to navigate learners through the fast changes and unexpected events that increasingly characterize the world of work, both now and in the future.

The Editors of Issue 16

Shyamal Majumdar, Gita Subrahmanyam, Thomas Schröder, Anne Busian

The recommendation to create quality assurance guidelines to recognize qualifications based on learning outcomes was made at the 3rd International Congress on TVET which took place in Shanghai in 2012. Quality assurance is fundamental to the TVET system in general and with regards to qualifications, and is of particular relevance at this time as many countries in the global village are developing and implementing NQFs.

As Asia moves towards greater socio-economic integration, mutual recognition of qualifications and their quality assurance is becoming increasingly important. Countries that have developed National Qualification Frameworks (NQF) are now shifting attention to their implementation including through the establishment of quality assurance mechanisms which are the foundation for mutual trust, relevance and recognition across borders.

ASEAN member states, in particular, are currently working on referencing their NQFs against AQRF (ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework). Not only quality assurance systems but also NQFs can only be truly operational if they are trusted – trusted by employers, employees, trainees and TVET practitioners alike.

In this sense, the sharing and discussion of quality assurance arrangements for TVET systems and qualifications in Asia-Pacific and recommendations for designing effective and harmonized quality assurance of TVET systems are expected to be useful to relevant policymakers and stakeholders in the region.

In that context, exploring quality assurance in Asia is a timely endeavour. The articles published in issue 7 of TVET@Asia, focus on the evolution of quality assurance development in TVET, take into account suitable assessments which underpin qualification arrangements and discuss quality assurance as a way to increase labour market relevance of TVET qualifications. Furthermore, policies, institutional arrangements and legislations related to quality assurance of TVET qualifications are also taken into account.

UNESCO Bangkok invited authors interested in contributing to this issue with research-, practice- or policy-based articles which provide, in an exemplary manner, insights regarding quality assurance at various levels.

NAYANA TARA, SANATH KUMAR and MATTHIAS PILZ focus on the need for quality in vocational training institutions in India. The need for integrating Quality Management principles in effective functioning of vocational schools (Industrial Training Institutes) is emphasised. The authors present findings of two own empirical studies of Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) conducted in different states of India; one survey focusses on regular ITIs and the other on upgraded ITIs, the so called Centres of Excellence (COE). On the basis of the findings the authors discuss an appropriate Quality Management model as well as needs for research and cross-country collaboration.

ANM EHSANUL HOQUE, former State Minister for Education in Bangladesh (2001-2006), focusses on the country’s challenges in aligning technical and vocational education and training with the market needs. Considering that Bangladesh is becoming the most densely populated country in the world and that remittance has become one of the main sources of economic development, the author comments on the current structure, system and policy of TVET in Bangladesh. He also provides information about government initiatives and highlights the need to develop a quality assurance system.

PHUONG CHI DIEP from Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education, takes a close look at policies and measures to promote quality assurance of TVET in Vietnam. She reports on the Vocational Training Development Strategy of Vietnam for the period 2011-2020 and gives insights regarding quality assurance approaches such as National Occupational Skill Standards (NOSS) and the development of a National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF). Furthermore, this article provides information about initial steps in the process of promoting and enacting the TVET quality assurance program as well as reflections on the mutual recognition of qualifications in the light of the development of the ASEAN Qualification Reference Framework (AQRF).

While PHUONG CHI DIEP mainly comments on political developments and their implementation, THI KIM OANH DUONG highlights project learning and competence-based assessment at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education. The author focusses on core competencies which can be defined as personal attributes or underlining characteristics which, combined with technical or professional skills, enable individuals to fulfil requirements set by employers. The paper reviews theoretical approaches to competence and competence-based assessment and shows that the application of competence-based assessment must be considered in ensuring the consistency of learning outcomes, teaching methods and assessment.

NORNAZIRA SUHAIROM, AEDE HATIB MUSTA’AMAL, NOR FADILA MOHD AMIN, MUHAMMAD KHAIR NORDIN and DAYANA FARZEEHA ALI from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reflect on the quality of professionals in the Malaysian Culinary Industry. They introduce competency profiling through self-assessment using a newly-developed questionnaire as the competency measurement instrument. The authors explain that their method can help organizations to gather data on the quality of their current workforce and to identify top performers.

GEORG SPÖTTL and MATTHIAS BECKER introduce a concept of standards for teacher training in technical education with a clear link to scientific disciplines at university level in individual countries. Their concept follows a dynamic approach which allows teachers to specify standards for the requirements of quality indicators. Via a bottom-up approach, this concept can be developed for a whole study programme and the quality indicators could be compared between countries and regions.

SYAZANA EBIL, NORAZLINA OTHMAN, Hjh Norhakimah Hj Mohd Nor, Marlinawati Ahmad, and Mohd Yusran Hj Masud from the Institute of Brunei Technical Education, in their article, present an overview of quality assurance of the qualifications process in TVET in Brunei Darussalam. They review the current quality assurance system and identify the progress made so far and challenges of implementing quality assurance of TVET qualifications which is effective, efficient and responsive to greater socio-economic integration in South-East Asia.

With an update in November 2016, two more articles could be published online:

JUNAINAH BINTI MOHD AMIN from the Malaysian Qualifications Agency comments on quality assurance in Malaysia: Her article gives a general overview of the TVET system in Malaysia and summarizes the current quality assurance governance for TVET qualifications and its development as the government of Malaysia has determined the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) sector as the main route in providing highly-skilled human resources and contributing towards economic growth.

JEONG-YOON CHO from the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education & Training (KRIVET) outlines quality assurance models in the Republic of Korea where two quality assurance systems, namely the National Technical Qualification System and a Private Qualification System, have been introduced during the past decades. The paper covers strengths and weaknesses of quality assurance of the TVET qualification process, as well as opportunities for and barriers to improving the present quality assurance process in Korea.

Thank you to the contributors. Enjoy reading!

The editors of Issue 7

Eunsang Cho, Anne Busian, Andrea Bateman, and Mike Coles

Citation

Cho, E., Busian, A., Bateman, A., & Coles, M. (2016). Editorial Issue 7: Quality Assurance as Basis of Trust and Labour Market Relevance of TVET Qualifications. In: TVET@Asia, issue 7, 1-3. Online: http://www.tvet-online.asia/issue7/editorial_cho_etal_tvet7.pdf (retrieved 2.8.2016).

The continuing discussion on the requirement to standardize the vocational teacher education (VTE) and technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is evidence of its relevance for a continuous societal and economic development and the sustainable betterment of the livelihoods of 608,000,000 people in 10 nations within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). At the political level, standardization and harmonization are claimed to be a precondition for the mobility of lecturers, students and skilled workers. The free movement of people is a precondition for the establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community 2015 and hence an urgent development target for a regional approach in VTE (Gennrich 2015, Schröder 2013). But what does the requested standardization practically and structurally imply for a politically, socially, economically, and culturally diverse region as Southeast Asia? Could elements of organizational structures and procedures of a federally organized educational sector as in Germany serve as a micro model for vocational teacher education in the ASEAN region?

This article describes the structures, organization and operation of vocational teacher education at the Technical University of Dortmund and its local cooperation partners, which has to respect both: local specifics and national standards for teacher education, which were developed and implemented under the condition of a federally organized system. What political and operational structures and procedures need to be interlaced in order to achieve a sustainable impact on operational level? There are regional organizations for TVET and VTE in Southeast Asia, namely the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO 2015) and the Regional Association of Vocational Teacher Education in Asia (RAVTE 2015), who undoubtedly bring together the competence to develop common standards, who have national and regional political backing and the operational structures to achieve an impact on the implementation level. Other intergovernmental organizations, like UNESCO, conducted important basal work 10 years ago, which will prove to be supportive, if taken into account.

The article concludes with recommendations, intending to contribute to an efficient interoperability of political and operational structures in the ASEAN-region, which achieves standardization and respects diversity.

1 Introduction

Vocational Teacher Education (VTE) in Southeast Asia faces high requirements with respect to quantity and quality of vocational teachers in a rapidly developing socioeconomic environment in the worlds´ most dynamic and culturally diverse region. Vocational teachers, i.e. TVET-teachers, are being educated at technical universities or universities of education that include technical departments (RAVTE 2015). The education of excellent vocational teachers is a precondition for the development of efficient TVET-systems, especially if young TVET-teachers are understood as Agents of Change (Numyoot/Schröder 2012). It is the highly relevant societal role of TVET-systems to educate and to train a highly skilled work force, which is required by the labor market and thus contributes to the ongoing development of the economies and thus societies in the ASEAN-region (Schröder 2013), especially in the wake of ASEAN Economic Community 2015 (Gennrich 2015). The ASEAN-region has developed a vast diversity of different systems for vocational teacher education with multiple ministries being responsible at national level (Paryono 2014). ASEAN and the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) strive for common standards in education, being supported by the Regional Association for Vocational Teacher Education in Asia (RAVTE), which is focusing on standardization in vocational teacher education and research on vocational education. RAVTE is a non-governmental organization, an expert network (Schröder/Carton/Paryono 2015) and a platform of 22 universities that are involved in vocational teacher education, and thus has an interest in the standardization and harmonization of vocational teacher education as an element of its Strategy 2015-18 focus (RAVTE 2015b).

With the forthcoming establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community 2015, this article will provide a timely insight on organizational structures and standardization of vocational teacher education in Germany as a possible source of suggestion for future development of vocational teacher education in ASEAN. The following article is providing insight in the organizational structure of vocational teacher education on the interaction between the federal level and the level of the federal states (Länder). On the local level, the interaction of the involved stakeholders in vocational teacher education in Dortmund, a town in the North Rhine Westphalia, will be exemplarily described. Finally, recommendations will be suggested for the organization of a regional standardization of vocational teacher education that allows diversity and adapted specifics on the local level.

2 Vocational Teacher Education in Germany – a blueprint for a decentralized and federal system in ASEAN-region?

Germany is a federal state, which comprises of 16 Länder (states); both the Federal Government and the Länder share legislative power, and education is under the legislation of the Länder. The Länder operate the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany with its secretariat in Berlin. The secretariat initiates, with the participation of delegates from the Länder, the development of standards and frameworks, which form a basis for the mutual recognition of certificates. The Federal Government is operating the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF), which is not actively involved in the operation of the education system. The development of curricular frameworks and competence-oriented standards for teacher education (KMK 2004) is fully under the responsibility of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonferenz – KMK 2015).

Although vocational teacher education at universities in Germany has a 60 year history, the system of vocational teacher education is under continuous scientific discussion, reflecting divergent approaches, perspectives and innovative developments (Becker, Spöttl, & Vollmer 2012; Spöttl 2010; Faßhauer 2012; Glöggler et al. 2013; Schütte 2013; Hartmann & Niethammer 2015; Busian 2015), to name just a few. The system continuously needs to adapt to changing economic and societal requirements and other socioeconomic trends. Since its establishment at universities, vocational teacher education has undergone several development phases (Schröder, Schulte & Spöttl 2013) and in its present iteration it reflects, to a certain extent, the demands of the local economy and cultural diversities, and even the organizational structure of the universities (Lipsmeier 2014). With respect to the development of VTE-systems, it is informative to see, the phases the system underwent during its development process in the past six decades; a system that is often asked to be transferred to other societies, without the development process being understood as an integral part of the transfer (Schröder 2015).

Furthermore, and depending on the political situation in the various German federal states (Länder), different types of teachers at vocational schools have emerged, reflecting different areas of expertise with respect to praxis and theory. Lipsmeier (2013) provided a comprehensive overview, systemizing the different types within the group of teaching personnel in vocational education in Germany. The article perfectly demonstrates the diversity of the entire TVET-system with respect to TVET-personnel.

Vocational education is an academic discipline at universities in Germany. Research is being conducted by those Institutes that are in charge of vocational teacher education. The self-reliant research activities within the academic discipline are creating research-based evidence that provides the basis for ongoing development, adaptation of changes, and political reform. It is an inherent concept of science to contribute to a positive development of society and society in return guarantees degrees of freedom, which are a precondition for research activities that lead to evidence-based policies.

The scope of work of vocational teachers in the TVET-system

The scope of the work of vocational teachers is with respect to the band width of their target groups the most demanding of all teaching professions in Germany. Vocational teachers are expected to teach target groups from level 1 to level 6 of the German Qualification Framework, which comprises of 8 levels (BMBF 2015). The assignment of vocational teachers at vocational schools depends on the studied major subject i.e. vocational disciplines. Most vocational schools expect their teachers to combine vocational theory and vocational praxis within their studied vocational discipline. In Germany, there are approximately 350 officially recognized occupations in the dual TVET system, where apprentices work and are being trained in a company and attend a vocational school for an average of 12 hours per week. The entire duration of the TVET-programs is in most cases 3 years. Vocational teachers teach apprentices in occupations which match the studied vocational discipline. A vocational teacher who studied mechanical engineering will for example teach – to name just a few – industrial mechanics, plant mechanics or mechatronics, whereas teachers, who studied economics i.e. business as a subject, will teach commercial and trading occupations e.g. bank clerks or office-managers. Additionally, German vocational schools offer a variety of school leaving certificates, e.g. a vocational high school, where students can achieve a higher education entrance qualification in a vocational context. In another branch, vocational teacher work with unemployed pupils, who have not yet managed to find an in-company apprenticeship within the Dual System. The German TVET-system is designed to educate for the labor market and also to offer further education for those who underwent an apprenticeship and intend to proceed in their career, or simply to offer an alternative pathway for dropouts from the general education system. It is possible that vocational teachers will teach technicians on level 6 from 8 to 9.30 am and from 9.50 to 11.20 a class of carpenter apprentices and from 11.50 to 13.20 a class of dropouts, who hold no certificate from the general education system at all.

As the above example indicates, the TVET-system and thus the system of vocational teacher education in Germany have to embrace a tremendous diversity: six levels, numerous economic sectors, cultural diversity and the adaptation of socioeconomic change. The diversity sometimes appears to be chaotic, but we recommend regarding it as evidence for a successful adaptation of different requirements from local economies, cultural diversity and different economic sectors and target groups. Diversity is rather a strength than a weakness. Standards for vocational teacher education, which have to be developed, will have to set a framework that allows for diversity.

3 System and structure of Vocational Teacher Education in the City of Dortmund in North Rhine Westphalia

In Germany, North Rhine Westphalia (NRW) is the largest State by population with 16 million inhabitants. Located in the central region of NRW, the “Ruhr Area”, has 53 cities stretching from Dortmund to Duisburg. This region which is the largest economic area in Europe has had to undergo severe structural and economic changes during the last decades. Whereas until the 1960s the Ruhr Area was mainly famous for its coal, iron and steel industries, the decline of these heavy industries required an orientation towards service and modern industries such as environmentalism or high technology.

Nowadays the Ruhr area which has a long tradition of immigration from many parts of Europe and which was voted “Europe’s Cultural Capital” in 2010, also strives for trademarks such as culture, education and service (Metropole Ruhr 2015). Since the 1970s, many institutions of higher education have been founded, such as six university and nine Universities of Applied Sciences.

Organizational structure of and cooperation partners in VTE

The education and training of vocational teachers comprises specific preconditions and 2 different phases. The general structure is identical in all German Länder. The preconditions are a university entrance certificate and 12 months of practical vocational hands-on experience (KMK 1995/2013), which can be acquired through work in a field of industry that corresponds with the major subject i.e. vocational discipline to be studied. Many of the students pass a complete 3-years-apprenticeship within the Dual System before starting their studies.

The 1^st phase of the vocational teacher education is a B.Ed.&M.Ed.-study program at a university, which primarily focuses on studies in the chosen subjects and in educational science. The study programs at universities are operated under the Ministries of Higher Education (MoHE). The M.Ed.-certificate is the precondition for being admitted to the 2^nd phase, which is primarily a one and a half year practical training at a vocational school, being operated by the Ministries of Education. The MoE in NRW operates Centers for Practical In-school Teacher Education (ZfsL), which are responsible for the 2^nd phase, which is in Asia occasionally called “post-study pre-service phase” (Kurnia 2013), and for the further training. The training aims at achieving competence development in teaching through coaching and theory-based reflection of experiential learning. The students receive a one and a half year contract for the duration of the 2^nd phase and a small salary. After the successful completion of the 2^nd phase, which ends with a thorough assessment of relevant competences, the MoE decides upon the long term employment of the young teacher, which eventually may lead to a well-paid “iron rice bowl” i.e. lifelong employment with the status of a civil servant. The certificate from the 2^nd phase, which is a state examination under the legislative of the Länder, is acknowledged by all 16 Länder.

In Dortmund, the study program for vocational teacher education comprises of 10 semesters (BSc/BA and MEd) and is organized and conducted by the Technical University of Dortmund. Whether the students are awarded with a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Arts depends on the subjects and vocational disciplines chosen. On the completion of the post-graduate phase of the program, the students are awarded a Master of Education certificate. The Center for In-school Practical Teacher Training (ZfsL 2015), which is one of 13 centers in North Rhine Westphalia, is in charge of the second phase of the teacher education i.e. training. Both institutions cooperate closely and align their operations and teaching content according to the Teacher Education and Training Act, which was released in North Rhine Westphalia in 2009.

Regarding the practical training the vocational schools are highly important. Each school has a mentoring system with experienced and trained mentors that support and consult young teacher in their second phase.

Figure 1: Structure of Vocational Teacher Education in North Rhine Westphalia/Germany

The three directly involved learning places, which are responsible for Vocational Teacher Education, cooperate on a regular basis. Representatives from the Technical University of Dortmund, the Center for In-school Practical Teacher Training (ZfsL) and representatives from the vocational schools conduct regular meetings in order to coordinate their activities, exchange experiences, and to discuss innovations.

4 The study programs in Vocational Teacher Education at Technical University of Dortmund

The Technical University of Dortmund was founded in 1968 and is a major player in achieving change in the economic structure of the region, being a hub for technological innovation and spinning-off start-ups. The university comprises 16 faculties, with 6,200 staff and 32,800 students in more than 80 study programs.

During the past decades, vocational teacher education at Technical University of Dortmund had to react to changes in societal and economic demands, adapt new paradigms in vocational didactics, introduce additional programs and to continuously improve its effectiveness, strengthening the combination of both theory and praxis in vocational teacher education.

An evidence-based precondition for the continuous development of vocational teacher education for the formal TVET-system, as well as for in-company training, and the synchronization of both, is the conduct of research on vocational education. This research is being conducted by the chair of Vocational Education at TU Dortmund. Both authors are presently working at the chair and in charge of vocational teacher education.

4.1 The “consecutive” Bachelor-Master-program of Vocational Teacher Education

The traditional Bachelor-Master-Program of Vocational Teacher Education at Technical University of Dortmund addresses students with university entrance certificate and a minimum of practical vocational experience of at least 12 months. Experience shows that many students have completed a full apprenticeship, which is a three year vocational training within the Dual System, before enrolling for the study program.

As a result of the Bologna-process and the Bologna-Declaration, which aimed at the establishment of a common European higher education area and which was signed by 29 states (European Ministers of Education 1999), the Technical University of Dortmund changed its vocational teacher education in 2005 into a Bachelor program of six semesters and a Master program of 4 semesters (Geerkens, Pätzold, & Busian 2005). Additional adaptations had to be undertaken, following the Teacher Education and Training Act released in 2009 in the State of North Rhine Westphalia. The vocational disciplines offered include Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Social Pedagogy and Sciences of Business and Administration. Students have the opportunity to choose their major subjects along following combinations:

• two vocational disciplines or
• one vocational disciplines and one general subject (e.g. German, English, Religion etc.) or
• two general subjects, if one of them is a STEM[1]-subject.

One of the two chosen subjects may be substituted by a program in special needs education (SNE). The broad variety of possible combinations acknowledges the enormous heterogeneity among the learners inside the TVET-system with its various qualification levels and numerous vocational disciplines. The Bachelor-Master-program aims at preparing the students for their future profession as vocational teachers. Internships at vocational schools are an integral part of the study program; wherein experiential learning is reflected and combined with theory.

Figure 2: Program of Vocational Teacher Education at the TU Dortmund

The BSc/BA-MEd-program of vocational teacher education at the Technical University of Dortmund is structured as shown in the above figure. The core of the study program comprises two major subjects (vocational disciplines/vocational field or general subjects), for example “Mechanical Engineering” and “English”. Subject didactics, which derive from the special didactical requirements of the specific subject, are courses within the responsibility of the major subjects like mechanical engineering.

In educational science general educational topics and educational theories are being lectured, experienced and reflected. Students attend courses on structures and systems of formal education, theory of educational philosophy, educational psychology and general or vocational didactics. Special seminars focus on the preparation for and reflection of practical in-school phases or internships like the praxis semester. Moreover, additional modules on “German as a Foreign Language” are mandatory in all teacher education programs in North Rhine Westphalia, as a reaction to the growing number of non-native speakers of the German language entering the education system.

The Bachelor-programs at the Technical University of Dortmund are almost identical for those students who want to become high school-teachers within the general education system and for TVET-teachers. However, the Master-programs vary considerably. TVET-teacher students receive modules and courses on the specifics of vocational education. Apart from theoretical courses, there are praxis phases, which are an important element of the study program. The most important practical phase is the so-called Praxis Semester (MSW 2010), which will be described below.

The number of students entering the traditional Bachelor-Master-program is regulated. The numbers of beginners in the Bachelor-program varies between 120 and 150 annually. The majority of the students enroll for the majors “business” and “social pedagogy”. As a result of the societal development in Germany, there is presently in vocational teacher education a lack of students in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and STEM subjects. At present, from the first to the sixth semester of the BA-program for vocational teacher education there are only 20 students enrolled in mechanical engineering and 13 students in electrical engineering, which is 6% of all students in the BA component of the consecutive Bachelor-Master-program of vocational teacher education at Technical University of Dortmund. The limited number of students enrolling for mechanical or electrical engineering within vocational teacher education is a problem prevalent in the whole of Germany.

4.2 The “non-consecutive” Master-program of Vocational Teacher Education for BSc Engineers

The most pressing problem of the TVET-systems in Germany is that there is a shortage of vocational teachers in mechanical and electrical engineering, which is consequently mirroring the shortage of skilled workers (level 4 of German Qualification Framework), technicians (level 5) and BSc and MSc engineers in mechanical and electrical engineering (level 6 and 7). The situation in the labor market leads to rapidly increasing salaries in the industry and since the State cannot offer competitive salaries there is a reduced readiness to study vocational teacher education in the area of mechanical and electrical engineering. The entire situation leads to a shortfall of qualified vocational teachers and eventually a decrease in quality, which in return is even enhancing the problem with respect to the education of skilled laborers and thus harms the prospect of economic development. According to an expert study group, which was assigned by the NRW Ministry of Education, the eight universities in NRW, which are involved in VTE, presently cannot produce sufficient vocational teachers within the aforementioned vocational disciplines (Expertenkommission Berufskolleglehrkräftesicherung 2013).

In order to contribute to the solution of the problem, the Technical University of Dortmund offers an additional MA-program in vocational education, which targets students who intend to become TVET-teacher and who hold a bachelor degree in Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering from a University of Applied Sciences or another Technical University with some of the candidates having worked after their BSc degree for years in the industry. The Master of Education for this specific target group was first offered in October 2014. The initial results are extremely promising. In the course of the three semesters 36 students have enrolled and are showing an extremely high motivation to successfully finish their study program as soon as possible. Since the students hold a Bachelor of Science (BSc) and thus have an engineering background, the Master of Education provides comparatively few courses on the engineering subjects, i.e. vocational disciplines themselves. The MA-program focuses on elements of educational science, vocational education and subject didactics in combination with internships and the Praxis Semester at vocational schools. This specific group of students provides very heterogeneous learning and working biographies. Before their engineering studies the majority of the students underwent an apprenticeship within the German Dual System /or acquired additional work experience from industry as a skilled worker or as an engineer. Therefore, a special focus has to be laid on the question, if the students with an engineerial background are going to manage the individual change from an “engineer”, who is primarily focusing on the solution of technical problems, amenable to the laws of physics, towards a vocational teacher, who focuses on the competence development of individuals with their deficits, irrationalities and mostly unforeseeable behaviors. This change is the main challenge for the students and for all stakeholders, which are involved in the processes of vocational teacher education.

In order to achieve this individual change of perspective the “Master of Education” envisages a close combination of theory and practice. A series of practical phases at vocational schools and a theory-based reflection of the experiential learning ensures that the students are given the chance to shift their perspective towards the learner and to develop a habit of continuously and flexibly adapting to new situations..

Figure 3: Master in Vocational Education for BSc in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering

The Master of Education program contains following practical phases:

• The “Internship of Occupational Aptitude” (IOA) has a length of four weeks. The student has to complete it before the study-program starts. It is mandatory for all teacher students and teaching professions. The student has the chance to explore his or hers occupational aptitude with respect to the vocational school as the future working place and the learners within the vocational system as target group. The vocational school provides thorough feedback to the intern at the end of the internship.
• The “Internship of Occupational Orientation” (IOO) serves the ideal of combining theory and praxis. The internship has a length of 4 weeks and is designed for the student to acquire first-hand teaching experience and experience in other fields such as observation of lessons, participation in conferences and giving advice to parents or companies, to name just a few. The internship has to be prepared and reflected in a seminar at TU Dortmund. The student has to write a report about his or her activities and experiences.
• The “Professional Field Internship” (PFI) refers to an in-school or in-company theory-practice phase, which aims at broadening other prospects outside the teaching profession. The internship is accompanied by a preparatory seminar in subject didactics. Since most students of this MA-program have acquired industry working experience, this is regularly acknowledged.
• The most important practical phase during the study program is the so-called “Praxis Semester”, which is a structured and mentored 5-months-internship at a vocational school. The Praxis Semester is prepared and accompanied by courses in Vocational Education and in Subject Didactics in close cooperation with the Centre for in-school Practical Teacher Training (ZfsL). The students have the chance to gain and to reflect experience regarding action-oriented learning and teaching, their role as a teaching person and approaches to innovative forms of classroom management. The habit of reflecting on experiences with scientific method, processes, and instruments is a major target of competence development.

Experience shows that the combination of theory and praxis i.e. the structured initiation of experiential learning contributes largely to a better understanding of educational theory and the enhancement of the individual competence development of the students. Furthermore, the different institutions: the university, the ZfsL and the vocational schools, profit from cooperating closely and thus learning from each other, which largely contributes towards a continuous improvement of the overall system of vocational teacher education.

5 Recommendations for a Regional Standardization and Local Coordination of Vocational Teacher Education

In the lead up to the ASEAN Economic Community 2015 and considering the culturally and economically diverse situation in the ASEAN-region, which is reflected in the variety of the vocational teacher education in the region, the present situation of VTE in Germany offers certain proven instruments and procedures that might contribute towards an enhancement of vocational teacher education in the ASEAN region. Hence the authors suggest that on both, the political level, represented by ASEAN-secretariat and SEAMEO, and on the level of operation of vocational teacher education, represented by RAVTE and its member universities, not only cooperate, but align their policies for vocational teacher education in order to increase the impact on innovation, standardization and mobility within the region.

The development AND operational implementation of common standards for vocational teacher education, which serve as a quality framework, is a precondition for the mobility of students and lecturers and for mutual recognition of learning outcomes and qualifications. The Regional Association for Vocational Teacher Education in Asia (RAVTE 2015) as the leading association for universities, which are involved in vocational teacher education in Southeast Asia, and the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO 2015) should closely cooperate in the development and operational implementation of common standards in order to combine the strengths of both at the political level and at the operational level. Instruments and procedures of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (Standing Conference or KMK) with its 16 MoEs, which represent the specific interests of their states, have proven to be effective and to have a sustainable impact. We recommend conducting an analysis of the mechanisms of the “Standing Conference” and an evaluation of the possibilities of a transfer of these instruments and procedurs while respecting the given organizational structures in SEA.

Subject areas, i.e. vocational disciplines, for vocational teacher education need to be defined and agreed on, in order to achieve a horizontal standardization. Previously the Hangzhou declaration (UNESCO UNEVOC 2004) was achieved by UNESCO in cooperation with delegates from a number of states with respect to defining vocational disciplines. The Bandung-declaration (2008), based on an international TVET conference at Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, endorsed the intention of the Hangzhou-declaration. Since this previous work is based on international best-practice and experience, it is highly recommended that these Declarations be considered in the development of the required horizontal standards.

Diversification of teaching professions: A TVET-sector that incorporates vocational schools and colleges, training centers and in-company training, that offer programs ranging from mainly theoretical lessons to predominantly practical lessons, could be a path towards more diversification within the TVET-systems (Lipsmeier 2013). This would address the various requirements diversifying to vertical standardization. A common structure of different outcome levels could form a basis for a certificate system that will attract practitioners and open pathways that eventually lead towards Master-level or even PhD-level. Possible pathways through this system should be outlined clearly and offer transparent vertical and horizontal mobility for TVET teaching professions.

Vocational Education or Vocational Pedagogy needs to be implemented as a self-reliant academic discipline throughout the region, which will lead to a continuous enhancement of research activities on vocational education. This will result in reforms and the improvement of vocational teacher education and TVET-systems. The implementation of vocational education as an academic discipline is a precondition for PhD programs and in consequence for regionally initiated continuous development of TVET-systems and vocational teacher education. The Thanyaburi statement from 2013 asks for such a crucial step. It was signed by all relevant regional organizations such as ASEAN University Network, UNESCO Bangkok, SEAMEO VOCTECH, and Colombo Plan Staff College for Technicians Education (CPSC) and the group of universities that founded RAVTE in March 2013 (RCP 2013).

Common study programs in vocational education within the ASEAN-region and beyond will eventually be a means to live up to common and to international standards on an operational level in a timely manner. Furthermore, it will enhance the exchange of students and lecturers, which will lay a basis for an increasing regional cooperation. RAVTE provides an organization that has all the necessary requirements to implement such a regional study program, preferably in cooperation with universities from other world regions that could provide support, if required.

Praxis orientation in study programs is crucial for the quality of vocational teacher education as the above example of the Technical University of Dortmund shows. Praxis orientation needs to be addressed from two directions. How can practitioners from industry be encouraged to participate in vocational teacher education programs and how can practical phases in companies and in vocational schools be integrated in meaningful study programs? The combination of theory and praxis and the reflection of experiential learning, the generation of individually generated knowledge and its linkage to educational theories are sustainably enhancing individual competence development and contributing to the ongoing development of TVET-systems.

There is a need to strengthen or establish local teacher-training-networks of universities, vocational schools, industry and other relevant stakeholders (e.g. practical teacher training institutions) in order to create a sound organizational structure for the integration of in-company training phases for practical vocational competences and in-school training phases for the acquisition of practical teaching experience.

The VTE at TU Dortmund exemplarily shows in the context of Germany as a federal state that a locally relevant VTE can be established and developed in the context of respecting standards that were developed on a national level; standards that have to serve the socioeconomic interests and cultural diversities of sixteen quite different Länder.

The political and the operational structures and organizations in the ASEAN-region are prepared to take the necessary steps, if they receive a clear assignment from and the backing of the national political level. But what is the choice? The AEC 2015 requires adequate measures in the vocational educational sector that will finally lead to the improvements that pose a precondition for ongoing societal and economic development. The political intention and support is essential for the implementation of sustainable steps that will lead to an enhanced ASEAN Economic Community and the prosperity of its people.

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[1]STEM is an acronym of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Citation

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